Unit 71 Verb + `to'- or `-ing'
Main points
* Some verbs take a `to'-infinitive clause
or an `-ing' clause with little difference in meaning. Others take a
`to'-infinitive or `-ing' clause, but the meaning is different.
1 The following verbs can be followed by a
`to'-infinitive clause or an `-ing' clause, with little difference in meaning.
attempt,
begin, bother, continue, fear, hate, love, prefer, start, try
It
started raining.
A
very cold wind had started to blow.
The
captain didn't bother answering.
I
didn't bother to answer.
Note
that if these verbs are used in a continuous tense, they are followed by a
`to'-infinitive clause.
The
company is beginning to export to the West.
We
are continuing to make good progress.
After `begin', `continue', and `start', you
use a `to'-infinitive clause with the verbs `understand', `know', and
`realize'.
I
began to understand her a bit better.
2 You can often use `like' with a
`to'-infinitive or an `-ing' clause with little difference in meaning.
I
like to fish.
I
like fishing.
However, there is sometimes a difference.
You can use `like' followed by a `to'-infinitive clause to say that you think
something is a good idea, or the right thing to do. You cannot use an `-ing'
clause with this meaning.
They
like to interview you first.
I
didn't like to ask him.
3 After `remember', `forget', and `regret',
you use an `-ing' clause if you are referring to an event after it has
happened.
I
remember discussing it once before.
I'll
never forget going out with my old aunt.
She
did not regret accepting his offer.
You use a `to'-infinitive clause after
`remember' and `forget' if you are referring to an event before it happens.
I
must remember to send a gift for her child.
Don't
forget to send in your entries.
After `regret', in formal English, you use
a `to'-infinitive clause with these verbs to say that you are sorry about what
you are saying or doing now:
announcelearnsee
informsaytell
I
regret to say that it was all burned up.
4 If you `try to do' something, you make an
effort to do it. If you `try doing' something, you do it as an experiment, for
example to see if you like it or if it is effective.
I
tried to explain.
Have
you tried painting it?
5 If you `go on doing' something, you
continue to do it. If you `go on to do' something, you do it after you have
finished doing something else.
I
went on writing.
He
later went on to form a computer company.
6 If you `are used to doing' something, you
are accustomed to doing it. If you `used to do' something, you did it regularly
in the past, but you no longer do it now.
We
are used to working together.
I
used to live in this street.
7 After `need', you use a `to'-infinitive
clause if the subject of `need' is also the subject of the `to'-infinitive
clause. You use an `-ing' form if the subject of `need' is the object of the
`-ing' clause.
We
need to ask certain questions.
It
needs cutting.
Unit 72 Verbs with other clauses
Main points
* `Make' and `let' can be followed by an
object and a base form.
* Some verbs of perception can be followed
by an object and an `-ing' clause, or an object and a base form.
* `Have' and `get' can be followed by an
object and a past participle.
* `Dare' is followed by a `to'-infinitive
clause or a base form.
1 You can use an object and a base form after
`make' to say that one person causes another person to do something, or after
`let' to say they allow them to do something.
My
father made me go for the interview.
Jenny
let him talk.
2 Some verbs of perception are used with an
object and an `-ing' clause if an action is unfinished or continues over a
period of time, and with an object and a base form if the action is finished.
feelhearseewatch
He
heard a distant voice shouting.
Dr
Hochstadt heard her gasp.
You normally use an `-ing' clause after
`notice', `observe', `smell', and `understand'.
I
could smell Chinese vegetables cooking.
We
can understand them wanting to go.
3 You can use an object and a past participle
after `have' or `get', when you want to say that someone arranges for something
to be done. `Have' is slightly more formal.
We've
just had the house decorated.
We
must get the car repaired.
You also use `have' and `get' with an
object and a past participle to say that something happens to someone,
especially if it is unpleasant.
She
had her purse stolen.
He
got his car broken into at the weekend.
4 You use `have' followed by an object and an
`-ing' clause, or an object and a past participle, when you want to say that
someone causes something to happen, either intentionally or unintentionally.
Alan
had me looking for that book all day.
He
had me utterly confused.
5 You use `want' and `would like' with an
object and a past participle to indicate that you want something to be done.
I
want the work finished by January 1st.
How
would you like your hair cut, sir?
6 `Dare' can be followed by a `to'-infinitive
clause or a base form in negative or interrogative sentences:
* when there is an auxiliary or modal in
front of `dare'
He
did not dare to walk to the village.
What
bank would dare offer such terms?
* when you use the form `dares' or `dared'
(but not `dares not' or `dared not')
No
one dares disturb him.
No
other manager dared to compete.
You must use a base form in:
* negative or interrogative sentences
without an auxiliary or modal before `dare'
I
daren't ring Jeremy again.
Nobody
dare disturb him.
Dare
she go in?
* negative sentences with `dares not' or
`dared not'
He
dares not risk it.
Sonny
dared not disobey.
Note that the phrase `how dare you' is
always followed by a base form.
How
dare you speak to me like that?
`Dare' is rarely used in affirmative
sentences.
Unit 73 Link verbs
Main points
* Link verbs are used to join the subject
with a complement.
* Link verbs can have adjectives, noun
groups, or `to'-infinitive clauses as complements.
* You can use `it' and `there' as
impersonal subjects with link verbs.
1 A small but important group of verbs are
followed by a complement rather than an object. The complement tells you more
about the subject. Verbs that take complements are called `link' verbs.
appear,
be, become, feel, get, go, grow, keep, look, prove, remain, seem, smell, sound,
stay, taste, turn
I
am proud of these people.
She
was getting too old to play tennis.
They
looked all right to me.
2 Link verbs often have adjectives as
complements describing the subject.
We
felt very happy.
He
was the tallest in the room.
See Units 31 to 33 and Unit 47 for more
information about adjectives after link verbs.
3 You can use link verbs with noun groups as
complements to give your opinion about the subject.
He's
not the right man for it.
She
seemed an ideal person to look after them.
You also use noun groups as complements
after `be', `become', and `remain' to specify the subject.
He
became a geologist.
Promises
by MPs remained just promises.
This
one is yours.
Note that you use object pronouns after
`be'.
It's
me again.
4 Some link verbs can have `to'-infinitive
clauses as complements.
appeargrowprove
getlookseem
He
appears to have taken my keys.
She
seemed to like me.
These verbs, and `remain', can also be
followed by `to be' and a complement.
Mary
seemed to be asleep.
His
new job proved to be a challenge.
5 You can use `it' and `there' as impersonal
subjects with link verbs.
It
seems silly not to tell him.
There
appears to have been a mistake.
See Units 17 and 18 for more information.
You can use `be' with some abstract nouns
as the subject, followed by a `that'-clause or a `to'-infinitive clause as the
complement.
advice,
agreement, answer, decision, idea, plan, problem, solution
The
answer is that they are not interested in it.
The
idea was to spend more money on training.
Some can only have a `that'-clause.
conclusion,
explanation, fact, feeling, reason, report, thought, understanding
The
fact is that I can't go to the party.
Unit 74 Reporting the past
Main points
* A report structure is used to report what
people say or think.
* You use the present tense of the
reporting verb when you are reporting something that someone says or thinks at
the time you are speaking.
* You often use past tenses in report
structures because a reported clause usually reports something that was said or
believed in the past.
1 You use a report structure to report what
people say or think. A report structure consists of two parts. One part is the
reporting clause, which contains the reporting verb.
I
told him nothing was going to happen to me.
I
agreed that he should do it.
The other part is the reported clause.
He
felt that he had to do something.
Henry
said he wanted to go home.
See Units 75-77 for more information on
report structures.
2 For the verb in the reporting clause, you
choose a tense that is appropriate at the time you are speaking.
Because reports are usually about something
that was said or believed in the past, both the reporting verb and the verb in
the reported clause are often in a past tense.
Mrs
Kaur announced that the lecture had begun.
At
the time we thought that he was mad.
3 Although you normally use past tenses in
reports about the past, you can use a present tense in the reported clause if
what you are saying is important in the present, for example:
* because you want to emphasize that it is
still true
Did
you tell him that this young woman is looking for a job?
* because you want to give advice or a
warning, or make a suggestion for the present or future
I
told you they have this class on Friday afternoon, so you should have come a
bit earlier.
4 You use a present tense for the reporting
verb when you are reporting:
* what someone says or thinks at the time
you are speaking
She
says she wants to see you this afternoon.
I
think there's something wrong.
Note that, as in the last example, it may
be your own thoughts that you are reporting.
* what someone often says
He
says that no one understands him.
* what someone has said in the past, if
what they said is still true
My
doctor says it's nothing to worry about.
5 If you are predicting what people will say
or think, you use a future tense for the reporting verb.
No
doubt he will claim that his car broke down.
They
will think we are making a fuss.
6 You very rarely try to report the exact
words of a statement. You usually give a summary of what was said. For example,
John might say:
`I tried to phone you about six times
yesterday. I let the phone ring for ages but there was no answer. I couldn't
get through at all so I finally gave up.'
You would probably report this as:
John said he tried to phone several times
yesterday, but he couldn't get through.
7 When you are telling a story of your own,
or one that you have heard from someone else, direct speech simply becomes part
of the narrative.
In this extract a taxi driver picks up a
passenger:
`What
part of London are you headed for?' I asked him.
`I'm
going to Epsom for the races. It's Derby day today.'
`So
it is,' I said. `I wish I were going with you. I love betting on horses.'
You might report this as part of the
narrative without reporting verbs:
My passenger was going to Epsom to see the
Derby, and I wanted to go with him.
Unit 75 Reported questions
Main points
* You use reported questions to talk about
a question that someone else has asked.
* In reported questions, the subject of the
question comes before the verb.
* You use `if' or `whether' in reported
`yes/no'-questions.
1 When you are talking about a question that
someone has asked, you use a reported question.
She
asked me why I was so late.
He
wanted to know where I was going.
I
demanded to know what was going on.
I
asked her if I could help her.
I
asked her whether there was anything wrong.
In formal and written English, `enquire'
(also spelled `inquire') is often used instead of `ask'.
Wilkie
had enquired if she did a lot of acting.
He
inquired whether he could see her.
2 When you are reporting a question, the verb
in the reported clause is often in a past tense. This is because you are often
talking about the past when you are reporting someone else's words.
She
asked me why I was so late.
Pat
asked him if she had hurt him.
However, you can use a present or future
tense if the question you are reporting relates to the present or future.
Mark
was asking if you're enjoying your new job.
They
asked if you'll be there tomorrow night.
3 In reported questions, the subject of the
question comes before the verb, just as it does in affirmative sentences.
She
asked me why I was late.
I
asked what he was doing.
4 You do not normally use the auxiliary `do'
in reported questions.
She
asked him if his parents spoke French.
They
asked us what we thought.
The auxiliary `do' can be used in reported
questions, but only for emphasis, or to make a contrast with something that has
already been said. It is not put before the subject as in direct questions.
She
asked me whether I really did mean it.
I
told him I didn't like classical music. He asked me what kind of music I did
like.
5 You use `if' or `whether' to introduce
reported `yes/no'-questions.
I
asked him if he was on holiday.
She
hugged him and asked him whether he was all right.
I
asked him whether he was single.
`Whether' is used especially when there is
a choice of possibilities.
I
was asked whether I wanted to stay at a hotel or at his home.
They
asked whether Tim was or was not in the team.
I
asked him whether he loved me or not.
Note that you can put `or not' immediately
after `whether', but not immediately after `if'.
The
police didn't ask whether or not they were in.
See Units 74, 76, and 77 for more
information on reporting.
Unit 76 Reporting: `that'-clauses
Main points
* You usually use your own words to report
what someone said, rather than repeating their exact words.
* Report structures contain a reporting
clause first, then a reported clause.
* When you are reporting a statement, the
reported clause is a `that'-clause.
* You must mention the hearer with `tell'.
You need not mention the hearer with `say'.
1 When you are reporting what someone said,
you do not usually repeat their exact words, you use your own words in a report
structure.
Jim
said he wanted to go home.
Jim's actual words might have been `It's
time I went' or `I must go'.
Report structures contain two clauses. The
first clause is the reporting clause, which contains a reporting verb such as
`say', `tell', or `ask'.
She
said that she'd been to Belgium.
The man in the shop told me
how much it would cost.
You often use verbs that refer to people's
thoughts and feelings to report what people say. If someone says `I am wrong',
you might report this as `He felt that he was wrong'. See Unit 77 for more information.
2 The second clause in a report structure is
the reported clause, which contains the information that you are reporting. The
reported clause can be a `that'-clause, a `to'-infinitive clause, an
`if'-clause, or a `wh'-word clause.
She
said that she didn't know.
He
told me to do it.
Mary
asked if she could stay with us.
She
asked where he'd gone.
3 If you want to report a statement, you use
a `that'-clause after a verb such as `say'.
admit,
agree, answer, argue, claim, complain, decide, deny, explain, insist, mention,
promise, reply, say, warn
He
said that he would go.
I
replied that I had not read it yet.
You often omit `that' from the
`that'-clause, but not after `answer', `argue', `explain', or `reply'.
They
said I had to see a doctor first.
He
answered that the price would be three pounds.
You often mention the hearer after the
preposition `to' with the following verbs.
admitcomplainmentionsuggest
announceexplainsay
He
complained to me that you were rude.
4 `Tell' and some other reporting verbs are
also used with a `that'-clause, but with these verbs you have to mention the
hearer as the object of the verb.
convincenotifyreassuretell
informpersuaderemind
He
told me that he was a farmer.
I
informed her that I could not come.
The word `that' is often omitted after
`tell'.
I
told them you were at the dentist.
You can also mention the hearer as the
object of the verb with `promise' and `warn'.
I
promised her that I wouldn't be late.
5 Note the differences between `say' and
`tell'. You cannot use `say' with the hearer as the object of the verb. You
cannot say `I said them you had gone'. You cannot use `tell' without the hearer
as the object of the verb. You cannot say `I told that you had gone'. You
cannot use `tell' with `to' and the hearer. You cannot say `I told to them you
had gone'.
6 The reporting verbs that have the hearer as
object, such as `tell', can be used in the passive.
She
was told that there were no tickets left.
Most reporting verbs that do not need the
hearer as object, such as `say', can be used in the passive with impersonal
`it' as subject, but not `answer', `complain', `insist', `promise', `reply', or
`warn'.
It
was said that the money had been stolen.
See also Units
74 and 77.
Unit 77 Other report structures
Main points
* When reporting an order, a request, or a
piece of advice, the reported clause is a `to'-infinitive clause, used after an
object.
* When reporting a question, the reported
clause is an `if'-clause or a `wh'-word clause.
* Many reporting verbs refer to people's
thoughts and feelings.
1 If you want to report an order, a request,
or a piece of advice, you use a `to'-infinitive clause after a reporting verb
such as `tell', `ask', or `advise'. You mention the hearer as the object of the
verb, before the `to'-infinitive clause.
advise,
ask, beg, command, forbid, instruct, invite, order, persuade, remind, tell,
warn
Johnson
told her to wake him up.
He
ordered me to fetch the books.
He
asked her to marry him.
He
advised me to buy it.
If the order, request, or advice is
negative, you put `not' before the `to'-infinitive.
He
had ordered his officers not to use weapons.
She
asked her staff not to discuss it publicly.
Doctors
advised him not to play for three weeks.
If the subject of the `to'-infinitive
clause is the same as the subject of the main verb, you can use `ask' or `beg'
to report a request without mentioning the hearer.
I
asked to see the manager.
Both
men begged not to be named.
2 If you want to report a question, you use a
verb such as `ask' followed by an `if'-clause or a `wh'-word clause.
I
asked if I could stay with them.
They
wondered whether the time was right.
He
asked me where I was going.
She
inquired how Ibrahim was getting on.
Note that in reported questions, the
subject of the question comes before the verb, just as it does in affirmative
sentences.
See Unit 75.
3 Many reporting verbs refer to people's
thoughts and feelings but are often used to report what people say. For
example, if someone says `I must go', you might report this as `She wanted to
go' or `She thought she should go'.
Some of these verbs are followed by:
* a `that'-clause
accept,
believe, consider, fear, feel, guess, imagine, know, suppose, think,
understand, worry
We
both knew that the town was cut off.
I
had always believed that I would see him again.
* a `to'-infinitive clause
intendplanwant
He
doesn't want to get up.
* a `that'-clause or a `to'-infinitive
clause
agree,
decide, expect, forget, hope, prefer, regret, remember, wish
She
hoped she wasn't going to cry.
They
are in love and wish to marry.
`Expect' and `prefer' can also be followed
by an object and a `to'-infinitive.
I'm
sure she doesn't expect you to take the plane.
The
headmaster prefers them to act plays they have written themselves.
4 A speaker's exact words are more often used
in stories than in ordinary conversation.
`I
knew I'd seen you,' I said.
`Only
one,' replied the Englishman.
`Let's
go and have a look at the swimming pool,' she suggested.
In ordinary conversation, it is normal to
use a report structure rather than to repeat someone's exact words.
Unit 78 The passive voice
Main points
* You use the passive voice to focus on the
person or thing affected by an action.
* You form the passive by using a form of
`be' and a past participle.
* Only verbs that have an object can have a
passive form. With verbs that can have two objects, either object can be the
subject of the passive.
1 When you want to talk about the person or
thing that performs an action, you use the active voice.
Mr
Smith locks the gate at 6 o'clock every night.
The
storm destroyed dozens of trees.
When you want to focus on the person or
thing that is affected by an action, rather than the person or thing that
performs the action, you use the passive voice.
The
gate is locked at 6 o'clock every night.
Dozens
of trees were destroyed.
2 The passive is formed with a form of the
auxiliary `be', followed by the past participle of a main verb.
Two
new stores were opened this year.
The
room had been cleaned.
Continuous passive tenses are formed with a
form of the auxiliary `be' followed by `being' and the past participle of a
main verb.
Jobs
are still being lost.
It
was being done without his knowledge.
3 After modals you use the base form `be'
followed by the past participle of a main verb.
What
can be done?
We
won't be beaten.
When you are talking about the past, you
use a modal with `have been' followed by the past participle of a main verb.
He
may have been given the car.
He
couldn't have been told by Jimmy.
4 You form passive infinitives by using `to
be' or `to have been' followed by the past participle of a main verb.
He
wanted to be forgiven.
The
car was reported to have been stolen.
5 In informal English, `get' is sometimes
used instead of `be' to form the passive.
Our
car gets cleaned every weekend.
He
got killed in a plane crash.
6 When you use the passive, you often do not
mention the person or thing that performs the action at all. This may be
because you do not know or do not want to say who it is, or because it does not
matter.
Her
boyfriend was shot in the chest.
Your
application was rejected.
Such
items should be carefully packed in tea chests.
7 If you are using the passive and you do
want to mention the person or thing that performs the action, you use `by'.
He
had been poisoned by his girlfriend.
He
was brought up by an aunt.
You use `with' to talk about something that
is used to perform the action.
A
circle was drawn in the dirt with a stick.
He
was killed with a knife.
8 Only verbs that usually have an object can
have a passive form. You can say `people spend money' or `money is spent'.
An
enormous amount of money is spent on beer.
The
food is sold at local markets.
With verbs which can have two objects, you
can form two different passive sentences. For example, you can say `The
secretary was given the key' or `The key was given to the secretary'.
They
were offered a new flat.
The
books will be sent to you.
See Unit 52 for more information on verbs
that can have two objects.
Unit 79 Introduction to modals
Main points
* The modal verbs are: `can', `could',
`may', `might', `must', `ought', `shall', `should', `will', and `would'
* Modals are always the first word in a
verb group.
* All modals except for `ought' are
followed by the base form of a verb.
* `Ought' is followed by a `to'-infinitive.
* Modals have only one form.
* Modals can be used for various different
purposes. These are explained in Units 80-91.
1 Modals are always the first word in a verb
group. All modals except for `ought' are followed by the base form of a verb.
I
must leave fairly soon.
I
think it will look rather nice.
Things
might have been so different.
People
may be watching.
2 `Ought' is always followed by a
`to'-infinitive.
She
ought to go straight back to England.
Sam
ought to have realized how dangerous it was.
You
ought to be doing this.
3 Modals have only one form. There is no `-s'
form for the third person singular of the present tense, and there are no
`-ing' or `-ed' forms.
There's
nothing I can do about it.
I'm
sure he can do it.
4 Modals do not normally indicate the time
when something happens. There are, however, a few exceptions.
`Shall' and `will' often indicate a future
event or situation.
I
shall do what you suggested.
He
will not return for many hours.
`Could' is used as the past form of `can'
to express ability. `Would' is used as the past form of `will' to express the
future.
When
I was young, I could run for miles.
He
remembered that he would see his mother the next day.
5 In spoken English and informal written
English, `shall' and `will' are shortened to `-'ll', and `would' to `-'d', and
added to a pronoun.
I'll
see you tomorrow.
I
hope you'll agree.
Posy
said she'd love to stay.
`Shall', `will', and `would' are never
shortened if they come at the end of a sentence.
Paul
said he would come, and I hope he will.
In spoken English, you can also add `-'ll'
and `-'d' to nouns.
My
car'll be outside.
The
headmaster'd be furious.
WARNING: Remember that `-d' is also the
short form of the auxiliary `had'.
I'd
heard it many times.
Unit 80 Modals * negation, questions
Main points
* You use negative words with modals to
make negative clauses.
* Modals go in front of the subject in
questions.
* You never use two modals together.
1 To make a clause negative, you put a
negative word immediately after the modal.
You
must not worry.
I
can never remember his name.
He
ought not to have done that.
`Can not' is always written as one word,
`cannot'.
I
cannot go back.
However, if `can' is followed by `not
only', `can' and `not' are not joined.
We
can not only book your flight for you, but also advise you about hotels.
2 In spoken English and informal written
English, `not' is often shortened to `-n't' and added to the modal. The
following modals are often shortened in this way:
could
not* couldn't
should
not* shouldn't
must
not* mustn't
would
not* wouldn't
We
couldn't leave the farm.
You
mustn't talk about Ron like that.
Note the following irregular short forms:
shall
not* shan't
will
not* won't
cannot*
can't
I
shan't let you go.
Won't
you change your mind?
We
can't stop now.
`Might not' and `ought not' are sometimes
shortened to `mightn't' and `oughtn't'.
Note that `may not' is very rarely
shortened to `mayn't' in modern English.
3 To make a question, you put the modal in
front of the subject.
Could
you give me an example?
Will
you be coming in later?
Shall
I shut the door?
Modals are also used in question tags.
See Units 7 and 8 for more information.
4 You never use two modals together. For
example, you cannot say `He will can come'. Instead you can say `He will be
able to come'.
I
shall have to go.
Your
husband might have to give up work.
5 Instead of using modals, you can often use
other verbs and expressions to make requests, offers, or suggestions, to
express wishes or intentions, or to show that you are being polite.
For example, `be able to' is used instead
of `can', `be likely to' is used instead of `might', and `have to' is used
instead of `must'.
All
members are able to claim expenses.
I
think that we are likely to see more of this.
These expressions are also used after
modals.
I
really thought I wouldn't be able to visit you this week.
6 `Dare' and `need' sometimes behave like
modals.
See Unit 72 for information on `dare' and
Units 71 and 90 for information on `need'.
Unit 81 Possibility
Main points
* You use `can' to say that something is
possible.
* You use `could',`might', and `may' to
indicate that you are not certain whether something is possible, but you think
it is.
1 When you want to say that something is
possible, you use `can'.
Cooking
can be a real pleasure.
In
some cases this can cause difficulty.
You use `cannot' or `can't' to say that
something is not possible.
This
cannot be the answer.
You
can't be serious.
2 When you want to indicate that you are not
certain whether something is possible, but you think it is, you use `could',
`might', or `may'. There is no important difference in meaning between these
modals, but `may' is slightly more formal.
That
could be one reason.
He
might come.
They
may help us.
You can also use `might not' or `may not'
in this way.
He
might not be in England at all.
They
may not get a house with central heating.
Note that `could not' normally refers to
ability in the past. See Unit 83.
3 When there is a possibility that something
happened in the past, but you are not certain if it actually happened, you use
`could have', `may have', or `might have', followed by a past participle.
It
could have been tomato soup.
You
may have noticed this advertisement.
You can also use `might not have' or `may
not have' in this way.
He
might not have seen me.
They
may not have done it.
You use `could not have' when you want to
indicate that it is not possible that something happened.
He
didn't have a boat, so he couldn't have rowed away.
It
couldn't have been wrong.
You also use `could have' to say that there
was a possibility of something happening in the past, but it did not happen.
It
could have been awful. (But it wasn't awful.)
You could have got a job last year. (But you didn't get a job.)
4 You also use `might have' or `could have'
followed by a past participle to say that if a particular thing had happened,
then there was a possibility of something else happening.
She
said it might have been all right, if the weather had been good. (But the
weather wasn't good, so it wasn't all right.)
If
I'd been there, I could have helped you. (But I wasn't there, so I couldn't
help you.)
5 `Be able to', `not be able to', and `be
unable to' are sometimes used instead of `can' and `cannot', for example after
another modal, or when you want to use a `to'-infinitive, an `-ing' form, or a
past participle.
When
will I be able to pick them up?
He
had been unable to get a ticket.
6 You use `used to be able to' to say that
something was possible in the past, but is not possible now.
Everyone
used to be able to have free eye tests.
You
used to be able to buy cigarettes in packs of five.
7 Note that you also use `could' followed by
a negative word and the comparative form of an adjective to emphasize a quality
that someone or something has. For example, if you say `I couldn't be happier',
you mean that you are very happy indeed and cannot imagine being happier than
you are now.
You
couldn't be more wrong.
He
could hardly have felt more ashamed of himself.
Unit 82 Probability and certainty
Main points
* You use `must', `ought', `should', or
`will' to express probability or certainty.
* You use `cannot' or `can't' as the
negative of `must', rather than `must not' or `mustn't', to say that something
is not probable or is not certain.
1 When you want to say that something is
probably true or that it will probably happen, you use `should' or `ought'.
`Should' is followed by the base form of a verb. `Ought' is followed by a
`to'-infinitive.
We
should arrive by dinner time.
She
ought to know.
When you want to say that you think
something is probably not true or that it will probably not happen, you use
`should not' or `ought not'.
There
shouldn't be any problem.
That
ought not to be too difficult.
2 When you want to say that you are fairly
sure that something has happened, you use `should have' or `ought to have',
followed by a past participle.
You
should have heard by now that I'm leaving.
They
ought to have arrived yesterday.
When you want to say that you do not think
that something has happened, you use `should not have' or `ought not to have',
followed by a past participle.
You
shouldn't have had any difficulty in getting there.
This
ought not to have been a problem.
3 You also use `should have' or `ought to
have' to say that you expected something to happen, but that it did not happen.
Yesterday
should have been the start of the soccer season.
She
ought to have been home by now.
Note that you do not normally use the
negative forms with this meaning.
4 When you are fairly sure that something is
the case, you use `must'.
Oh,
you must be Sylvia's husband.
He
must know something about it.
If you are fairly sure that something is
not the case, you use `cannot' or `can't'.
This
cannot be the whole story.
He
can't be very old - he's about 25, isn't he?
WARNING: You do not use `must not' or
`mustn't' with this meaning.
5 When you want to say that you are almost
certain that something has happened, you use `must have', followed by a past
participle.
This
article must have been written by a woman.
We
must have taken the wrong road.
To say that you do not think that something
has happened, you use `can't have', followed by a past participle.
You
can't have forgotten me.
He
can't have said that.
6 You use `will' or `-'ll' to say that
something is certain to happen in the future.
People
will always say the things you want to hear.
They'll
manage.
You use `will not' or `won't' to say that
something is certain not to happen.
You
won't get much sympathy from them.
7 There are several ways of talking about
probability and certainty without using modals. For example, you can use:
* `bound to' followed by the base form of a
verb
It
was bound to happen.
You're
bound to make a mistake.
* an adjective such as `certain', `likely',
`sure', or `unlikely', followed by a `to'-infinitive clause or a `that'-clause
They
were certain that you were defeated.
I
am not likely to forget it.
See Unit 33 for more information on these
adjectives.
Unit 83 Ability
Main points
* You use `can' to talk about ability in
the present and in the future.
* You use `could' to talk about ability in
the past.
* You use `be able to' to talk about
ability in the present, future, and past.
1 You use `can' to say that someone has the
ability to do something.
You
can all read and write.
Anybody
can become a qualified teacher.
You use `cannot' or `can't' to say that
they do not have the ability to do something.
He
cannot dance.
2 When you want to talk about someone's
ability in the past as a result of a skill they had or did not have, you use
`could', `could not', or `couldn't'.
He
could run faster than anyone else.
A
lot of them couldn't read or write.
3 You also use `be able to', `not be able
to', and `be unable to' to talk about someone's ability to do something, but
`can' and `could' are more common.
She
was able to tie her own shoelaces.
They
are not able to run very fast.
Many
people were unable to read or write.
4 You use `was able to' and `were able to' to
say that someone managed to do something in a particular situation in the past.
After
treatment he was able to return to work.
The
farmers were able to pay the new wages.
We
were able to find time to discuss it.
WARNING: You do not normally use `could' to
say that someone managed to do something in a particular situation. However,
you can use `could not' or `couldn't' to say that someone did not manage to do
something in a particular situation.
We
couldn't stop laughing.
I
just couldn't think of anything to say.
5 When you want to say that someone had the
ability to do something in the past, but did not do it, you use `could have'
followed by a past participle.
You
could have given it all to me.
You
know, she could have done French.
You often use this form when you want to
express disapproval about something that was not done.
You
could have been a little bit tidier.
You
could have told me!
6 You use `could not have' or `couldn't have'
followed by a past participle to say that it is not possible that someone had
the ability to do something.
I
couldn't have gone with you, because I was in London at the time.
She
couldn't have taken the car, because Jim was using it.
7 In most cases, you can choose to use `can'
or `be able to'. However, you sometimes have to use `be able to'. You have to
use `be able to' if you are using another modal, or if you want to use an
`-ing' form, a past participle, or a `to'-infinitive.
Nobody
else will be able to read it.
...the
satisfaction of being able to do the job.
I
don't think I'd have been able to get an answer.
You're
foolish to expect to be able to do that.
8 You also use `can' or `could' with verbs
such as `see', `hear', and `smell' to say that someone is or was aware of
something through one of their senses.
I
can smell gas.
I
can't see her.
I
could see a few stars in the sky.
There
was such a noise we couldn't hear.
Unit 84 Permission
Main points
* You use `can' or `be allowed to' to talk
about whether someone has permission to do something or not.
* You usually use `can' to give someone
permission to do something.
* You usually use `can' or `could' to ask
for permission to do something.
1 You use `can' to say that someone is
allowed to do something. You use `cannot' or `can't' to say that they are not
allowed to do it.
Students
can take a year away from university.
Children
cannot bathe except in the presence of two lifesavers.
You use `could' to say that someone was
allowed to do something in the past. You use `could not' or `couldn't' to say
that they were not allowed to do it.
We
could go to any part of the island we wanted.
Both
students and staff could use the swimming pool.
We
couldn't go into the library after 5 pm.
2 You also use `be allowed to' when you are
talking about permission, but not when you are asking for it or giving it.
When
Mr Wilt asks for a solicitor he will be allowed to see one.
It
was only after several months that I was allowed to visit her.
You're
not allowed to use calculators in exams.
3 In more formal situations, `may' is used to
say that someone is allowed to do something, and `may not' is used to say that
they are not allowed to do it.
They
may do exactly as they like.
The
retailer may not sell that book below the publisher's price.
4 When you want to give someone permission to
do something, you use `can'.
You
can borrow that pen if you want to.
You
can go off duty now.
She
can go with you.
`May' is also used to give permission, but
this is more formal.
You
may speak.
You
may leave as soon as you have finished.
5 When you want to refuse someone permission
to do something, you use `cannot', `can't', `will not', `won't', `shall not',
or `shan't'.
`Can
I have some sweets?' - `No, you can't!'
`I'll
just go upstairs.' - `You will not!'
You
shan't leave without my permission.
6 When you are asking for permission to do
something, you use `can' or `could'. If
you ask in a very simple and direct way, you use `can'.
Can
I ask a question?
Can
we have something to wipe our hands on please?
`Could' is more polite than `can'.
Could
I just interrupt a minute?
Could
we put this fire on?
`May' is also used to ask permission, but
this is more formal.
May
I have a cigarette?
`Might' is rather old-fashioned and is not
often used in modern English in this way.
Might
I inquire if you are the owner?
7 You have to use `be allowed to' instead of
a modal if you are using another modal, or if you want to use an `-ing' form, a
past participle, or a `to'-infinitive.
Teachers
will be allowed to decide for themselves.
I
am strongly in favour of people being allowed to put on plays.
They
have not been allowed to come.
We
were going to be allowed to travel on the trains.
Unit 85 Instructions and requests
Main points
* You use `Could you' to tell someone
politely to do something.
* Imperatives are not very polite.
* You also use `Could you' to ask someone
politely for help.
* You use `I would like', `Would you mind',
`Do you think you could', and `I wonder if you could' to make requests.
1 When you want to tell someone to do
something, you can use `Could you', `Will you', and `Would you'. `Could you' is
very polite.
Could
you make out her bill, please?
Could
you just switch on the light behind you?
`Will you' and `Would you' are normally
used by people in authority. `Would you' is more polite than `Will you'.
Would
you tell her that Adrian phoned?
Will
you please leave the room?
Note that although these sentences look
like questions (`Will you', not `You will'), they are not really questions.
2 If someone in authority wants to tell
someone to do something, they sometimes say `I would like you to do this' or
`I'd like you to do this'.
Penelope,
I would like you to get us the files.
I'd
like you to finish this work by Thursday.
3 You can use an imperative to tell someone
to do something, but this is not very polite.
Stop
her.
Go
away, all of you.
However, imperatives are commonly used when
talking to people you know very well.
Come
here, love.
Sit
down and let me get you a drink.
You often use imperatives in situations of
danger or urgency.
Look
out! There's a car coming.
Put
it away before Mum sees you.
4 When you want to ask someone to help you,
you use `Could you', `Would you', `Can you', or `Will you'. `Could you' and
`Would you' are used in formal situations, or when you want to be very polite,
for example because you are asking for something that requires a lot of effort.
`Could you' is more polite than `Would you'.
Could
you show me how to do this?
Would
you do me a favour?
`Will you' and `Can you' are used in
informal situations, especially when you are not asking for something that
requires a lot of effort.
Will
you post this for me on your way to work?
Can
you make me a copy of that?
5 You also use `I would like' or `I'd like',
followed by a `to'-infinitive or a noun group, to make a request.
I
would like to ask you one question.
I'd
like steak and chips, please.
6 You can also make a request by using:
* `Would you mind', followed by an `-ing'
form
Would
you mind doing the washing up?
Would
you mind waiting a moment?
* `Do you think you could', followed by the
base form of a verb
Do
you think you could help me?
* `I wonder if you could', followed by the
base form of a verb
I
wonder if you could look after my cat for me while I'm away?
Unit 86 Suggestions
Main points
* You use `could', `couldn't', or `shall'
to make a suggestion.
* You use `Shall we' to suggest doing
something with someone.
* You use `You might like' or `You might
want' to make polite suggestions.
* You use `may as well' or `might as well'
to suggest a sensible action.
* You use `What about', `Let's', `Why
don't', and `Why not' to make suggestions.
1 You use `could' to suggest doing something.
You
could phone her.
She
could go into research.
We
could go on Friday.
You also use `couldn't' in a question to
suggest doing something.
Couldn't
you just build some more factories?
Couldn't
we do it at the weekend?
2 You use `Shall we' to suggest doing
something with somebody else.
Shall
we go and see a film?
Shall
we talk about something different now?
You use `Shall I' to suggest doing
something yourself.
Shall
I contact the Chairman?
3 You use `You might', followed by a verb
meaning `like' or `want', to make a suggestion in a very polite way.
I
thought perhaps you might like to come along with me.
You
might want to try another shop.
You can also do this using `It might be',
followed by a noun group or an adjective, and a `to'-infinitive.
I
think it might be a good idea to stop recording now.
It
might be wise to get a new car.
4 You use `may as well' or `might as well' to
suggest doing something, but only because it seems the sensible thing to do, or
because there is no reason not to do it.
You
may as well open them all.
He
might as well take the car.
5 You can also make a suggestion by using:
* `What about' or `How about' followed by
an `-ing' form
What
about going to Judy's?
How
about using my car?
* `Let's' followed by the base form of a
verb
Let's
go outside.
* `Why don't I', `Why don't you' or `Why
don't we' followed by the base form of a verb
Why
don't I pick you up at seven?
Why
don't you write to her yourself?
Why
don't we just give them what they want?
* `Why not' followed by the base form of a
verb
Why
not bring him along?
Why
not try both?
Unit 87 Offers and invitations
Main points
* You use `Would you like' to offer something
to someone or to invite them to do something.
* You use `Can I', `Could I', and `Shall I'
when you offer to help someone.
1 When you are offering something to someone,
or inviting them to do something, you use `Would you like'.
Would
you like a drink?
Would
you like to come for a meal?
You can use `Will you' to offer something
to someone you know quite well, or to give an invitation in a fairly informal
way.
Will
you have another biscuit, Dave?
Will
you come to my party on Saturday?
2 You use `Can I' or `Could I' when you are
offering to do something for someone. `Could I' is more polite.
Can
I help you with the dishes?
Could
I help you carry those bags?
You also use `Shall I' when you are
offering to do something, especially if you are fairly sure that your offer
will be accepted.
Shall
I shut the door?
Shall
I spell that for you?
3 You use `I can' or `I could' to make an
offer when you want to say that you are able to help someone.
I
have a car. I can take Daisy to the station.
I
could pay some of the rent.
4 You also use `I'll' to offer to do
something.
I'll
give them a ring if you like.
I'll
show you the hotel.
5 You use `You must' if you want to invite
someone very persuasively to do something.
You
must come round for a meal some time.
You
must come and visit me.
6 There are other ways of making offers and
giving invitations without using modals. For example, you can use `Let me' when
offering to help someone.
Let
me take you to your room.
Let
me drive you to London.
You can make an offer or give an invitation
in a more informal way by using an imperative sentence, when it is clear that
you are not giving an order.
Have
a cigar.
Come
to my place.
You can add emphasis by putting `do' in
front of the verb.
Do
have a chocolate biscuit.
Do
help yourselves.
You can also give an invitation by using
`Why don't you' or `How about'.
Why
don't you come to lunch tomorrow?
How
about coming with us to the party?
Unit 88 Wants and wishes
Main points
* You use `would like' to say what you
want.
* You use `wouldn't like' to say what you
do not want.
* You use `would rather' or `would sooner'
to say what you prefer.
* You also use `wouldn't mind' to say what
you want.
1 You can say what someone wants by using
`would like' followed by a `to'-infinitive or a noun group.
I
would like to know the date of the next meeting.
John
would like his book back.
When the subject is a pronoun, you often
use the short form `-'d' instead of `would'.
I'd
like more information about the work you do.
We'd
like seats in the non-smoking section, please.
In spoken English, you can also use the
short form `-'d' instead of `would' when the subject is a noun.
Sally'd
like to go to the circus.
2 You can say what someone does not want by
using `would not like' or `wouldn't like'.
I
would not like to see it.
They
wouldn't like that.
3 You use `would like' followed by `to have'
and a past participle to say that someone wishes now that something had
happened in the past, but that it did not happen.
I
would like to have felt more relaxed.
She'd
like to have heard me first.
You
use `would have liked', followed by a `to'-infinitive or a noun group, to say
that someone wanted something to happen, but it did not happen.
Perhaps
he would have liked to be a teacher.
I
would have liked more ice cream.
Note the difference. `Would like to have'
refers to present wishes about past events. 'Would have liked' refers to past
wishes about past events.
4 You can also use `would hate', `would
love', or `would prefer', followed by a `to'-infinitive or a noun group.
I
would hate to move to another house now.
I
would prefer a cup of coffee.
Note that `would enjoy' is followed by a
noun group or an `-ing' form, not by a `to'-infinitive.
I
would enjoy a bath before we go.
I
would enjoy seeing him again.
5 You can use `would rather' or `would
sooner' followed by the base form of a verb to say that someone prefers one
situation to another.
He'd
rather be playing golf.
I'd
sooner walk than take the bus.
6 You use `I wouldn't mind', followed by an
`-ing' form or a noun group, to say that you would like to do or have
something.
I
wouldn't mind being the manager of a store.
I
wouldn't mind a cup of tea.
Unit 89 Obligation and necessity 1
Main points
* You use `have to', `must', and `mustn't'
to talk about obligation and necessity in the present and future.
* You use `had to' to talk about obligation
and necessity in the past.
* You use the auxiliary `do' with `have to'
to make questions.
* You use `have got to' in informal
English.
1 When you want to say that someone has an
obligation to do something, or that it is necessary for them to do it, you use
`must' or `have to'.
You
must come to the meeting tomorrow.
The
plants must have plenty of sunshine.
I
enjoy parties, unless I have to make a speech.
He
has to travel to find work.
2 There is sometimes a difference between
`must' and `have to'. When you are stating your own opinion that something is
an obligation or a necessity, you normally use `must'.
I
must be very careful not to upset him.
We
must eat before we go.
He
must stop working so hard.
When you are giving information about what
someone else considers to be an obligation or a necessity, you normally use
`have to'.
They
have to pay the bill by Thursday.
She
has to go now.
Note that you normally use `have to' for
things that happen repeatedly, especially with adverbs of frequency such as
`often', `always', and `regularly'.
I
always have to do the shopping.
You
often have to wait a long time for a bus.
3 You use `must not' or `mustn't' to say that
it is important that something is not done or does not happen.
You
must not talk about politics.
They
mustn't find out that I came here.
Note that `must not' does not mean the same
as `not have to'. If you `must not' do something, it is important that you do
not do it.
If you `do not have to' do something, it is
not necessary for you to do it, but you can do it if you want.
WARNING: You only use `must' for obligation
and necessity in the present and the future. When you want to talk about
obligation and necessity in the past, you use `had to' rather than `must'.
She
had to catch the six o'clock train.
I
had to wear a suit.
4 You use `do', `does', or `did' when you
want to make a question using `have to' and `not have to'.
How
often do you have to buy petrol for the car?
Does
he have to take so long to get ready?
What
did you have to do?
Don't
you have to be there at one o'clock?
WARNING: You do not normally form questions
like these by putting a form of `have' before the subject. For example, you do
not normally say `How often have you to buy petrol?'
5 In informal English, you can use `have got
to' instead of `have to'.
You've
just got to make sure you tell him.
She's
got to see the doctor.
Have
you got to go so soon?
WARNING: You normally use `had to', not
`had got to', for the past.
He
had to know.
I
had to lend him some money.
6 You can only use `have to', not `must', if
you are using another modal, or if you want to use an `-ing' form, a past
participle, or a `to'-infinitive.
They
may have to be paid by cheque.
She
grumbled a lot about having to stay abroad.
I
would have had to go through London.
He
doesn't like to have to do the same job every day.
Unit 90 Obligation and necessity 2
Main points
* You use `need to' to talk about
necessity.
* You use `don't have to', `don't need to',
`haven't got to', or `needn't' to say that it is not necessary to do something.
* You use `needn't' to give someone
permission not to do something.
* You use `need not have', `needn't have',
`didn't need to', or `didn't have to' to say that it was not necessary to do
something in the past.
1 You can use `need to' to talk about the
necessity of doing something.
You
might need to see a doctor.
A
number of questions need to be asked.
2 You use `don't have to' when there is no obligation
or necessity to do something.
Many
women don't have to work.
You
don't have to learn any new typing skills.
You can also use `don't need to', `haven't
got to', or `needn't' to say that there is no obligation or necessity to do
something.
You
don't need to buy anything.
I
haven't got to go to work today.
I
can pick John up. You needn't bother.
3 You also use `needn't' when you are giving
someone permission not to do something.
You
needn't say anything if you don't want to.
You
needn't stay any longer tonight.
4 You use `need not have' or `needn't have'
and a past participle to say that someone did something which was not
necessary. You are often implying that the person did not know at the time that
their action was not necessary.
I
needn't have waited until the game began.
Nell
needn't have worked.
They
needn't have worried about Reagan.
5 You use `didn't need to' to say that
something was not necessary, and that it was known at the time that the action
was not necessary. You do not know if the action was done, unless you are given
more information.
They
didn't need to talk about it.
I
didn't need to worry.
6 You also use `didn't have to' to say that
it was not necessary to do something.
He
didn't have to speak.
Bill
and I didn't have to pay.
7 You cannot use `must' to refer to the past,
so when you want to say that it was important that something did not happen or
was not done, you use other expressions.
You can say `It was important not to', or
use phrases like `had to make sure' or `had to make certain' in a negative
sentence.
It
was important not to take the game too seriously.
It
was necessary that no one was aware of being watched.
You
had to make sure that you didn't spend too much.
We
had to do our best to make certain that it wasn't out of date.
Unit 91 Mild obligation and advice
Main points
* You use `should' and `ought' to talk
about mild obligation.
* You use `should have' and `ought to have'
to say that there was a mild obligation to do something in the past, but it was
not done.
* You can also use `had better' to talk
about mild obligation.
1 You can use `should' and `ought' to talk
about a mild obligation to do something. When you use `should' and `ought', you
are saying that the feeling of obligation is not as strong as when you use
`must'.
`Should' and `ought' are very common in
spoken English.
`Should' is followed by the base form of a
verb, but `ought' is followed by a `to'-infinitive.
When you want to say that there is a mild
obligation not to do something, you use `should not', `shouldn't, `ought not',
or `oughtn't'.
2 You use `should' and `ought' in three main
ways:
* when you are talking about what is a good
thing to do, or the right thing to do.
We
should send her a postcard.
We
shouldn't spend all the money.
He
ought to come more often.
You
ought not to see him again.
* when you are trying to advise someone
about what to do or what not to do.
You
should claim your pension 3-4 months before you retire.
You
shouldn't use a detergent.
You
ought to get a new TV.
You
oughtn't to marry him.
* when you are giving or asking for an
opinion about a situation. You often use `I think', `I don't think', or `Do you
think' to start the sentence.
I
think that we should be paid more.
I
don't think we ought to grumble.
Do
you think he ought not to go?
What
do you think we should do?
3 You use `should have' or `ought to have'
and a past participle to say that there was a mild obligation to do something
in the past, but that it was not done. For example, if you say `I should have
given him the money yesterday', you mean that you had a mild obligation to give
him the money yesterday, but you did not give it to him.
I
should have finished my drink and gone home.
You
should have realised that he was joking.
We
ought to have stayed in tonight.
They
ought to have taken a taxi.
You use `should not have' or `ought not to
have' and a past participle to say that it was important not to do something in
the past, but that it was done. For example, if you say `I should not have left
the door open', you mean that it was important that you did not leave the door
open, but you did leave it open.
I
should not have said that.
You
shouldn't have given him the money.
They
ought not to have told him.
She
oughtn't to have sold the ring.
4 You use `had better' followed by a base
form to indicate mild obligation to do something in a particular situation. You
also use `had better' when giving advice or when giving your opinion about
something. The negative is `had better not'.
I
think I had better show this to you now.
You'd
better go tomorrow.
I'd
better not look at this.
WARNING: The correct form is always `had
better' (not `have better'). You do not use `had better' to talk about mild
obligation in the past, even though it looks like a past form.
Unit 92 Defining relative clauses
Main points
* You use defining relative clauses to say
exactly which person or thing you are talking about.
* Defining relative clauses are usually
introduced by a relative pronoun such as `that', `which', `who', `whom', or
`whose'.
* A defining relative clause comes
immediately after noun, and needs a main clause to make a complete sentence.
1 You use defining relative clauses to give
information that helps to identify the person or thing you are talking about.
The
man who you met yesterday was my brother.
The
car which crashed into me belonged to Paul.
When you are talking about people, you use
`that' or `who' in the relative clause.
He
was the man that bought my house.
You
are the only person here who knows me.
When you are talking about things, you use
`that' or `which' in the relative clause.
There
was ice cream that Mum had made herself.
I
will tell you the first thing which I can remember.
2 `That', `who', or `which' can be:
* the subject of the verb in the relative
clause
The
thing that really surprised me was his attitude.
The
woman who lives next door is very friendly.
The
car which caused the accident drove off.
* the object of the verb in the relative
clause
The thing that I really liked
about it was its size.
The
woman who you met yesterday lives next door.
The
car which I wanted to buy was not for sale.
In formal English, `whom' is used instead
of `who' as the object of the verb in the relative clause.
She
was a woman whom I greatly respected.
3 You can leave out `that', `who', or `which'
when they are the object of the verb in the relative clause.
The
woman you met yesterday lives next door.
The
car I wanted to buy was not for sale.
The
thing I really liked about it was its size.
WARNING: You cannot leave out `that',
`who', or `which' when they are the subject of the verb in the relative clause.
For example, you say `The woman who lives next door is very friendly'. You do
not say `The woman lives next door is very friendly'.
4 A relative pronoun in a relative clause can
be the object of a preposition. Usually the preposition goes at the end of the
clause.
I
wanted to do the job which I'd been training for.
The
house that we lived in was huge.
You can often omit a relative pronoun that
is the object of a preposition.
Angela
was the only person I could talk to.
She's
the girl I sang the song for.
The preposition always goes in front of
`whom', and in front of `which' in formal English.
These
are the people to whom Catherine was referring.
He
was asking questions to which there were no answers.
5 You use `whose' in relative clauses to
indicate who something belongs to or relates to. You normally use `whose' for
people, not for things.
A
child whose mother had left him was crying loudly.
We
have only told the people whose work is relevant to this project.
6 You can use `when', `where', and `why' in
defining relative clauses after certain nouns. You use `when' after `time' or
time words such as `day' or `year'. You use `where' after `place' or place
words such as `room' or `street'. You use `why' after `reason'.
There
had been a time when she hated all men.
This
is the year when profits should increase.
He
showed me the place where they work.
That
was the room where I did my homework.
There
are several reasons why we can't do that.
Unit 93 Non-defining clauses
Main points
* You use non-defining relative clauses to
give extra information about the person or thing you are talking about.
* Non-defining relative clauses must be
introduced by a relative pronoun such as `which', `who', `whom', or `whose'.
* A non-defining relative clause comes immediately
after a noun and needs a main clause to make a complete sentence.
1 You use non-defining relative clauses to
give extra information about the person or thing you are talking about. The
information is not needed to identify that person or thing.
Professor
Marvin, who was always early, was there already.
`Who was always early' gives extra
information about Professor Marvin. This is a non-defining relative clause,
because it is not needed to identify the person you are talking about. We
already know that you are talking about Professor Marvin.
Note that in written English, a
non-defining relative clause is usually separated from the main clause by a
comma, or by two commas.
I
went to the cinema with Mary, who I think you met.
British
Rail, which has launched an enquiry, said one coach was badly damaged.
2 You always start a non-defining relative
clause with a relative pronoun. When you are talking about people, you use
`who'. `Who' can be the subject or object of a non-defining relative clause.
Heath
Robinson, who died in 1944, was a graphic artist and cartoonist.
I
was in the same group as Janice, who I like a lot.
In formal English, `whom' is sometimes used
instead of `who' as the object of a non-defining relative clause.
She
was engaged to a sailor, whom she had met at Dartmouth.
3 When you are talking about things, you use
`which' as the subject or object of a non-defining relative clause.
I
am teaching at the Selly Oak centre, which is just over the road.
He
was a man of considerable inherited wealth, which he ultimately spent on his
experiments.
WARNING: You do not normally use `that' in
non-defining relative clauses.
4 You can also use a non-defining relative
clause beginning with `which' to say something about the whole situation
described in a main clause.
I
never met Brando again, which was a pity.
She
was a little tense, which was understandable.
Small
computers need only small amounts of power, which means that they will run on
small batteries.
5 When you are talking about a group of
people or things and then want to say something about only some of them, you
can use one of the following expressions:
many
of which, many of whom, none of which, none of whom, one of which, one of whom,
some of which, some of whom
He
talked about several very interesting people, some of whom he was still in
contact with.
6 You can use `when' and `where' in
non-defining relative clauses after expressions of time or place.
This
happened in 1957, when I was still a baby.
She
has just come back from a holiday in Crete, where Alex and I went last year.
Unit 94 Participle clauses
Main points
* Nouns are followed by `-ing' clauses that
say what a person or thing is doing.
* Nouns are followed by `-ed' clauses that
show that a person or thing has been affected or caused by an action.
1 You can often give more information about a
noun, or an indefinite pronoun such as `someone' or `something', by adding a
clause beginning with an `-ing' form, an `-ed' form, or a `to'-infinitive.
He
gestured towards the box lying on the table.
I
think the idea suggested by Tim is the best one.
She
wanted someone to talk to.
2 You use an `-ing' clause after a noun to
say what someone or something is doing or was doing at a particular time.
The
young girl sitting opposite him was his daughter.
Most
of the people strolling in the park were teenagers.
3 You can also use an `-ing' clause after a
noun to say what a person or thing does generally, rather than at a particular
time.
Problems
facing parents should be discussed.
The
men working there were not very friendly.
4 You often use an `-ing' clause after a noun
which is the object of a verb of perception, such as `see', `hear', or `feel'.
See also Unit 72.
Suddenly
we saw Amy walking down the path.
He
heard a distant voice shouting.
I
could feel something touching my face and neck , something ice-cold.
5 You use an `-ed' clause after a noun to
show that someone or something has been affected or caused by an action.
He
was the new minister appointed by the President.
The
man injured in the accident was taken to hospital.
Remember that not all verbs have regular
`-ed' forms.
A
story written by a young girl won the competition.
She
was wearing a dress bought in Paris.
Unit 95 Adding to a noun group
Main points
* Some adjectives can be used after nouns.
* You can use relative clauses after nouns.
* Adverbials of place and time can come
after nouns.
* A noun can be followed by another noun
group.
* You can use `that'-clauses after some
nouns.
1 You can use some adjectives after a noun to
give more information about it, but the adjectives are usually followed by a
prepositional phrase, a `to'-infinitive clause, or an adverbial.
This
is a warning to people eager for a quick profit.
These
are the weapons likely to be used.
For
a list of the facilities available here, ask the secretary.
You
must talk to the people concerned.
See Unit 31 for more information on
adjectives used after nouns.
2 When you want to give more precise
information about the person or thing you are talking about, you can use a
defining relative clause after the noun.
The
man who had done it was arrested.
There
are a lot of things that are wrong.
Nearly
all the people I used to know have gone.
Note that you can also use defining
relative clauses after indefinite pronouns such as `someone' or `something'.
I'm
talking about somebody who is really ill.
See Unit 92 for more information on
defining relative clauses.
3 You can use an adverbial of place or time
after a noun.
People
everywhere are becoming more selfish.
This
is a reflection of life today.
4 You can add a second noun group after a
noun. The second noun group gives you more precise information about the first
noun.
Her
mother, a Canadian, died when she was six.
Note that the second noun group is
separated by commas from the rest of the clause.
5 Nouns such as `advice', `hope', and `wish',
which refer to what someone says or thinks, can be followed by a `that'-clause.
Here are some examples:
advice,
agreement, belief, claim, conclusion, decision, feeling, hope, promise, threat,
warning, wish
It
is my firm belief that more women should stand for Parliament.
I
had a feeling that no-one thought I was good enough.
Note that all these nouns are related to
reporting verbs, which also take a `that'-clause. For example, `information' is
related to `inform', and `decision' is related to `decide'.
Some of these nouns can also be followed by
a `to'-infinitive clause.
agreement,
decision, hope, order, promise, threat, warning, wish
The
decision to go had not been an easy one.
I
reminded Barnaby of his promise to buy his son a horse.
6 A few other nouns can be followed by a
`that'-clause.
advantage,
confidence, danger, effect, evidence, fact, idea, impression, news, opinion,
possibility, view
He
didn't want her to get the idea that he was rich.
I
had no evidence that Jed was the killer.
He
couldn't believe the news that his house had just burned down.
Note that when a noun group is the object
of a verb, it may be followed by different structures.
See Units 69 to 72 for more information.
Unit 96 Time clauses
Main points
* You use time clauses to say when
something happens.
* Time clauses can refer to the past,
present, or future.
* Time clauses are introduced by words such
as `after', `when', or `while'.
* A time clause needs a main clause to make
a complete sentence. The time clause can come before or after the main clause.
1 You use time clauses to say when something
happens. The verb in the time clause can be in a present or a past tense.
I
look after the children while she goes to London.
I
haven't given him a thing to eat since he arrived.
WARNING: You never use a future tense in a
time clause. You use one of the present tenses instead.
Let
me stay here till Jeannie comes to bed.
I'll
do it when I've finished writing this letter.
2 When you want to say that two events happen
at the same time, you use a time clause with `as', `when', or `while'.
We
arrived as they were leaving.
Sometimes the two events happen together
for a period of time.
She
wept bitterly as she told her story.
Sometimes one event interrupts another
event.
He
was having his dinner when the telephone rang.
John
will arrive while we are watching the film.
Note that you often use a continuous tense
for the interrupted action. See Unit 60.
3 When you want to say that one event happens
before or after another event, you use a time clause with `after', `as soon
as', `before', or `when'.
As
soon as we get tickets, we'll send them to you.
Can
I see you before you go, Helen?
When
he had finished reading, he looked up.
Note that you use the past perfect to
indicate an event that happened before another event in the past.
4 When you want to mention a situation which
started in the past and continued until a later time, you use a time clause
with `since' or `ever since'. You use a past simple or a past perfect in the
time clause, and a past perfect in the main clause.
He
hadn't cried since he was a boy of ten.
Janine
had been busy ever since she had heard the news.
I'd
wanted to come ever since I was a child.
If the situation started in the past and
still continues now, you use a past simple in the time clause, and a present
perfect in the main clause.
I've
been in politics since I was at university.
Ever
since you arrived you've been causing trouble.
Note that after impersonal `it' and a time
expression, if the main clause is in the present tense, you use `since' with a
past simple.
It
is two weeks now since I wrote to you.
If the main clause is in the past tense,
you use `since' with a past perfect.
It
was nearly seven years since I 'd seen Toby.
For `since' as a preposition, see Unit 40.
5 When you want to talk about when a
situation ends, you use a time clause with `till' or `until' and a present or
past tense.
We'll
support them till they find work.
I
stayed there talking to them until I saw Sam.
She
waited until he had gone.
6 When you want to say that something happens
before or at a particular time, you use a time clause with `by the time' or `by
which time'.
By
the time I went to bed, I was exhausted.
He
came back later, by which time they had gone.
7 In written or formal English, if the
subject of the main clause and the time clause are the same, you sometimes omit
the subject in the time clause and use a participle as the verb.
I
read the book before going to see the film.
The
car was stolen while parked in a London street.
Unit 97 Purpose and reason clauses
Main points
* Purpose clauses are introduced by
conjunctions such as `so', `so as to', `so that', `in order to' or `in order
that'.
* Reason clauses are introduced by
conjunctions such as `as', `because', or `in case'.
* A purpose or reason clause needs a main
clause to make a complete sentence.
* A purpose clause usually comes after a
main clause. A reason clause can come before or after a main clause.
1 You use a purpose clause when you are
saying what someone's intention is when they do something. The most common type
of purpose clause is a `to'-infinitive clause.
The
children sleep together to keep warm.
They
locked the door to stop us from getting in.
Instead of using an ordinary
`to'-infinitive, you often use `in order to' or `so as to' with an infinitive.
He
was giving up his job in order to stay at home.
I
keep the window open, so as to let fresh air in.
To make a purpose clause negative, you have
to use `in order not to' or `so as not to' with an infinitive.
I
would have to give myself something to do in order not to be bored.
They
went on foot, so as not to be heard.
Another way of making purpose clauses
negative is by using `to avoid' with an `-ing' form or a noun group.
I
had to turn away to avoid letting him see my smile.
They
drove through town to avoid the motorway.
2 Another type of purpose clause begins with
`in order that', `so', or `so that'. These clauses usually contain a modal.
When the main clause refers to the present,
you usually use `can', `may', `will', or `shall' in the purpose clause.
Any
holes should be fenced so that people can't fall down them.
I
have drawn a diagram so that my explanation will be clearer.
When the main clause refers to the past,
you usually use `could', `might', `should', or `would' in the purpose clause.
She
said she wanted tea ready at six so she could be out by eight.
Someone
lifted Philip onto his shoulder so that he might see the procession.
You use `in order that', `so', and `so
that', when the subject of the purpose clause is different from the subject of
the main clause. For example, you say `I've underlined it so that it will be
easier.' You do not say `I've underlined it to be easier'.
3 You can also talk about the purpose of an
action by using a prepositional phrase introduced by `for'.
She
went out for a run.
They
said they did it for fun.
I
usually check, just for safety's sake.
4 You use a reason clause when you want to
explain why someone does something or why it happens. When you are simply
giving the reason for something, you use `because', `since', or `as'.
I
couldn't see Helen's expression, because her head was turned.
Since
it was Saturday, he stayed in bed.
As
he had been up since 4 am, he was very tired.
You can also use `why' and a reported
question to talk about the reason for an action. See Unit 75.
I
asked him why he had come.
5 When you are talking about a possible
situation which explains the reason why someone does something, you use `in
case' or `just in case' .
I've
got the key in case we want to go inside.
I
am here just in case anything unusual happens.
WARNING: You do not use a future tense
after `in case'. You do not say `I'll stay behind in case she'll arrive later'.
Unit 98 Result clauses
Main points
* You use result clauses to talk about the
result of an action or situation.
* Result clauses are introduced by
conjunctions such as `so', `so...(that)', or `such...(that)'.
* A result clause needs a main clause to
make a complete sentence. The result clause always comes after the main clause.
1 You use `so' and `so that' to say what the
result of an action or situation is.
He
speaks very little English, so I talked to him through an interpreter.
My
suitcase had become damaged on the journey home, so that the lid would not stay
closed.
2 You also use `so...that' or `such...that'
to talk about the result of an action or situation.
He
dressed so quickly that he put his boots on the wrong feet.
She
got such a shock that she dropped the bag.
`That' is often omitted.
They
were so surprised they didn't try to stop him.
They
got such a fright they ran away again.
3 You only use `such' before a noun, with or
without an adjective.
They
obeyed him with such willingness that the strike went on for over a year.
Sometimes
they say such stupid things that I don't even bother to listen.
If the noun is a singular count noun, you
put `a' or `an' in front of it.
I
was in such a panic that I didn't know it was him.
Note that you only use `so' before an
adjective or an adverb.
It
all sounded so crazy that I laughed out loud.
They
worked so quickly that there was no time for talking.
4 When you want to say that a situation does
not happen because someone or something has an excessive amount of a quality,
you use `too' with an adjective and a `to'-infinitive. For example, if you say
`They were too tired to walk', you mean that they did not walk because they were
too tired.
He
was too proud to apologise.
She
was too weak to lift me.
You also use `too' with an adverb and a
`to'-infinitive.
They
had been walking too silently to be heard.
She
spoke too quickly for me to understand.
5 When you want to say that a situation
happens or is possible because someone or something has a sufficient amount of
a quality, you use `enough' after adjectives and adverbs, followed by a
`to'-infinitive.
He
was old enough to understand.
I
could see well enough to know we were losing.
You normally put `enough' in front of a
noun, not after it.
I
don't think I've got enough information to speak confidently.
6 You also use `and as a result', `and so',
or `and therefore' to talk about the result of an action or situation.
He
had been ill for six months, and as a result had lost his job.
She
was having great difficulty getting her car out, and so I had to move my car to
let her out.
We
have a growing population and therefore we need more and more food.
You can also put `therefore' after the
subject of the clause. For example, you can say `We have a growing population
and we therefore need more food'.
`As a result' and `therefore' can also be
used at the beginning of a separate sentence.
In
a group, they are not so frightened. As a result, patients reveal their
problems more easily.
He
lacks money to invest in improving his tools. Therefore he is poor.
You can also put `therefore' after the
subject of the separate sentence. For example, you can say `He left us. He
therefore loses his share'.
Unit 99 Contrast clauses
Main points
* These are clauses introduced by
`although', `in spite of' and `though'.
* You use contrast clauses when you want to
make two statements, and one statement makes the other seem surprising.
* Contrast clauses are introduced by
conjunctions such as `although', `in spite of', or `though'.
* A contrast clause needs a main clause to
make a complete sentence. The contrast clause can come before or after the main
clause.
1 When you simply want to contrast two
statements, you use `although', `though' or `even though'.
Although
he was late, he stopped to buy a sandwich.
Though
he has lived for years in London, he writes in German.
I
used to love listening to her, even though I could only understand about half
of what she said.
Sometimes you use words like `still',
`nevertheless', or `just the same' in the main clause to add emphasis to the
contrast.
Although
I was shocked, I still couldn't blame him.
Although
his company is profitable, it nevertheless needs to face up to some serious
problems.
Although
she hated them, she agreed to help them just the same.
When the subject of the contrast clause and
the main clause are the same, you can often omit the subject and the verb `be'
in the contrast clause.
Although
poor, we still have our pride. (Although we are poor...)
Though
dying of cancer, he painted every day. (Though he was dying of cancer...)
2 Another way of making a contrast is to use
`despite' or `in spite of', followed by a noun group.
Despite
the difference in their ages they were close friends.
In
spite of poor health, my father was always cheerful.
WARNING: You say `in spite of' but
`despite' without `of'.
3 You can also use an `-ing' form after
`despite' or `in spite of'.
Despite
working hard, I failed my exams.
Conservative
MPs are against tax rises, in spite of wanting lower inflation.
4 You
can also use `despite the fact that' or `in spite of the fact that', followed
by a clause.
Despite
the fact that it sounds like science fiction, most of it is technically
possible at this moment.
They
ignored this order, in spite of the fact that they would probably get into
trouble.
It is possible to omit `that', especially
in spoken English.
He
insisted on playing, in spite of the fact he had a bad cold.
Unit 100 Manner clauses
Main points
* You use manner clauses to talk about how
something is done.
* Manner clauses are introduced by
conjunctions such as `as', `as if', `as though', or `like'.
* A manner clause needs a main clause to
make a complete sentence. The manner clause always comes after the main clause.
1 When you want to say how someone does
something, or how something is done, you use `as'.
He
behaves as he does, because his father was really cruel to him.
The
bricks are still made as they were in Roman times.
You often use `just', `exactly', or
`precisely' in front of `as' for emphasis.
It
swims on the sea floor just as its ancestors did.
I
like the freedom to plan my day exactly as I want.
Everything
was going precisely as she had planned.
2 When you want to indicate that the
information in the manner clause might not be true, or is definitely not true,
you use `as if' or `as though'.
Almost
as if she'd read his thought, she straightened her back and returned to her
seat.
Just
act as though everything's normal.
After `as if' or `as though', you often use
a past tense even when you are talking about the present, to emphasize that the
information in the manner clause is not true. In formal English, you use `were'
instead of `was'.
You
talk about him as if he were dead.
It
is Malcolm's 37th birthday, but he and his mother both behave as if he were 7.
3 You also use `the way (that)', `in a way
(that)', or `in the way (that)' to talk about how someone does something, or
how something is done.
I
was never allowed to sing the way I wanted to.
They
did it in a way that I had never seen before.
We
make it move in the way that we want it to.
4 You can use `how' in questions and reported
questions to talk about the method used to do something, and sometimes to
indicate your surprise that it was possible to do it.
`How
did he get in?' - `He broke a window.'
I
wondered how he could afford a new car.
See also Unit 68 for more information on
`..as if..' and `..as though..'
Sometimes, you can use `how' to talk about
the manner in which someone does something.
I
watched how he did it, then tried to copy him.
Tell
me how he reacted when he saw you.
Unit 101 Changing sentence focus
Main points
* You can sometimes change the focus of a
sentence by moving part of the sentence to the front.
* You can also change the focus of a
sentence by using an expression such as `The fact is', `The thing is', or `The
problem is'.
* You can also use impersonal `it' to
change the focus of a sentence.
1 In most affirmative clauses, the subject of
the verb comes first.
They
went to Australia in 1956.
I've
no idea who it was.
However, when you want to emphasize another
part of the sentence, you can put that part first instead.
In
1956 they went to Australia.
Who
it was I've no idea.
2 One common way of giving emphasis is by
placing an adverbial at the beginning of the sentence.
At
eight o'clock I went down for my breakfast.
For
years I'd had to hide what I was thinking.
Note that after adverbials of place and
negative adverbials, you normally put the subject after the verb.
She
rang the bell for Sylvia. In came a girl she had not seen before.
On
no account must they be let in.
After adverbials of place, you can also put
the subject before the verb. You must do so, if the subject is a pronoun.
The
door opened and in she came.
He'd
chosen Japan, so off we went to the Japanese Embassy.
3 When you want to say that you do not know
something, you can put a reported question at the beginning of the sentence.
What
I'm going to do next I don't quite know.
How
he managed I can't imagine.
4 Another way of focusing on information is
to use a structure which introduces what you want to say by using `the' and a
noun, followed by `is'. The nouns most commonly used in this way are:
answer,
conclusion, fact, point, problem, question, rule, solution, thing, trouble,
truth
The second part of the sentence is usually
a `that'-clause or a `wh'-clause, although it can also be a `to'-infinitive
clause or a noun group.
The
problem is that she can't cook.
The
thing is, how are we going to get her out?
The
solution is to adopt the policy which will produce the greatest benefits.
The
answer is planning, timing, and, above all, practical experience.
It is also common to use a whole sentence
to introduce information in following sentences. See Unit 102 for more
information.
5 You can also focus on information by using
impersonal `it', followed by `be', a noun group, and a relative clause.
The noun group can be the subject or object
of the relative clause.
It
was Ted who broke the news to me.
It
is usually the other vehicle that suffers most.
It's
money that they want.
It
was me Dookie wanted.
There are many other ways of focusing on
information:
Ted
was the one who broke the news to me.
Money
is what we want.
What
we want is money.
6 You can also focus on the information given
in the other parts of a clause, or a whole clause, using impersonal `it'. In
this case, the second part of the sentence is a `that'-clause.
It
was from Francis that she first heard the news.
It
was meeting Peter that really started me off on this new line of work.
Perhaps
it's because he's a misfit that I get along with him.
Unit 102 Cohesion
Main points
* You can use pronouns and determiners to
refer back to something that has already been mentioned.
* You use coordinating conjunctions to link
clauses.
1 When you speak or write, you usually need
to make some connection with other things that you are saying or writing. The
most common way of doing this is by referring back to something that has
already been mentioned.
2 One way of referring back to something is
to use a personal pronoun such as `she', `it', or `them', or a possessive
pronoun such as `mine' or `hers'.
My
father is fat. He weighs over fifteen stone.
Mary
came in. She was a good-looking woman.
`Have
you been to London
?' - `Yes, it was very crowded.'
`Have
you heard of David Lodge ?' - `Yes, I've just read a novel of his.'
`Would
you mind moving your car , please?' - `It's not mine.'
3 You can also use a specific determiner such
as `the' or `his' in front of a noun to refer back to something.
A
man and a woman were walking up the hill. The man wore shorts, a T-shirt, and
basketball sneakers. The woman wore a print dress.
`Thanks,'said
Brody. He put the telephone down, turned out the light in his office, and
walked out to his car.
4 The demonstratives `this', `that', `these'
and `those' are also used to refer back to a thing or fact that has just been
mentioned.
In
1973 he went on a caravan holiday . At the beginning of this holiday he began
to experience pain in his chest.
There's
a lot of material there. You can use some of that.
5 The following general determiners can also
be used to refer back to something:
An other
each every other
both
either neither
Five
officials were sacked. Another four were arrested.
There
are more than two hundred and fifty species of shark, and every one is
different.
6 Another common way of making connections in
spoken or written English is by using one of the following coordinating
conjunctions:
And
nor so yet
But
or then
Anna
had to go into town and she wanted to go to Bride Street .
I
asked if I could borrow her bicycle but she refused.
He
was only a boy then, yet he was not afraid.
You
can use a coordinating conjunction to link clauses that have the same subject.
When you link clauses which have the same subject, you do not always need to
repeat the subject in the second clause.
She
was born in Budapest and raised in Manhattan .
He didn't yell or scream.
When
she saw Morris she went pale, then blushed.
7 Most subordinating conjunctions can also be
used to link sentences together, rather than to link a subordinate clause with
a main clause in the same sentence.
`When
will you do it?' - `When I get time.'
`Can
I borrow your car?' - `So long as you drive carefully.'
We
send that by airmail. Therefore , it's away on Thursday and our client gets it
on Monday.
8 When people are speaking or writing, they
often use words that refer back to similar words, or words that refer back to a
whole sentence or paragraph.
Everything
was quiet . Everywhere there was the silence of the winter night.
`What
are you going to do?' - `That's a good question.'
ไม่มีความคิดเห็น:
แสดงความคิดเห็น