Unit 46 Transport prepositions
Main points
* This includes phrases like: `by bus', `in
a car', `on the plane', and `off the train'.
* You can use `by' with most forms of
transport.
* You use `in', `into', and `out of' with
cars.
* You normally use `on', `onto', and `off'
with other forms of transport.
1 When you talk about the type of vehicle or
transport you use to travel somewhere, you use `by'.
by
bus, by bicycle, by car, by coach, by plane, by train
She
had come by car with her husband and her four children.
I
left Walsall in the afternoon and went by bus and train to Nottingham.
WARNING: If you want to say you walk
somewhere, you say you go `on foot'. You do not say `by foot'.
Marie
decided to continue on foot.
2 You use `in', `into', and `out of' when you
are talking about cars, vans, lorries, taxis, and ambulances.
I
followed them in my car.
The
carpets had to be collected in a van.
Mr
Ward happened to be getting into his lorry.
She
was carried out of the ambulance and up the steps.
3 You use `on', `onto', and `off' when you
are talking about other forms of transport, such as buses, coaches, trains,
ships, and planes.
Why
don't you come on the train with me to New York?
Peter
Hurd was already on the plane from California.
The
last thing he wanted was to spend ten days on a boat with Hooper.
He
jumped back onto the old bus, now nearly empty.
Mr
Bixby stepped off the train and walked quickly to the exit.
You can use `in', `into', and `out of' with
these other forms of transport, usually when you are focusing on the physical
position or movement of the person, rather than stating what form of transport
they are using.
The
passengers in the plane were beginning to panic.
He
got back into the train quickly, before Batt could stop him.
We
jumped out of the bus and ran into the nearest shop.
Unit 47 Adjective + preposition
Main points
* Some adjectives used after link verbs can
be used alone or followed by a prepositional phrase.
* Some adjectives must be followed by
particular prepositions.
* Some adjectives can be followed by
different prepositions to introduce different types of information.
1 When you use an adjective after a link
verb, you can often use the adjective on its own or followed by a prepositional
phrase.
See Unit 33 for other patterns.
He
was afraid.
He
was afraid of his enemies.
2 Some adjectives cannot be used alone after
a link verb. If they are followed by a prepositional phrase, it must have a
particular preposition:
aware
of, accustomed to, unaware of, unaccustomed to, fond of, used to
I've
always been terribly fond of you.
He
is unaccustomed to the heat.
3 Some adjectives can be used alone, or
followed by a particular preposition:
* used alone, or with `of' to specify the
cause of a feeling
afraid,
ashamed, convinced, critical, envious, frightened, jealous, proud, scared,
suspicious, terrified, tired
They
may feel jealous of your success.
I
was terrified of her.
*
used alone, or with `of' to specify the person who has a quality
brave,
careless, clever, generous, good, intelligent, kind, nice, polite, sensible,
silly, stupid, thoughtful, unkind, unreasonable, wrong
That
was clever of you!
I
turned the job down, which was stupid of me.
*
used alone or used with `to', usually referring to:
similarity:close
equal identical related similar
marriage:married
engaged
loyalty:dedicated
devoted loyal
rank:junior
senior
My
problems are very similar to yours.
He
was dedicated to his job.
* used alone, or followed by `with' to
specify the cause of a feeling
bored,
content, displeased, dissatisfied, impatient, impressed, pleased, satisfied
I
could never be bored with football.
He
was pleased with her.
* used alone, or with `at', usually
referring to:
strong
reactions:alarmed amazed astonished shocked surprised
ability:bad
excellent good hopeless useless
He
was shocked at the hatred they had known.
She
had always been good at languages.
* used alone, or with `for' to specify the
person or thing that a quality relates to
common,
difficult, easy, essential, important, necessary, possible, unnecessary,
unusual, usual
It's
difficult for young people on their own.
It
was unusual for them to go away at the weekend.
4 Some adjectives can be used alone, or used
with different prepositions.
* used alone, with an impersonal subject
and `of' and the subject of the action, or with a personal subject and `to' and
the object of the action.
cruel,
friendly, generous, good, kind, mean, nasty, nice, polite, rude, unfriendly,
unkind
It
was rude of him to leave so suddenly.
She
was rude to him for no reason.
* used alone, with `about' to specify a
thing or `with' to specify a person
angry,
annoyed, delighted, disappointed, fed up, furious, happy, upset
She
was still angry about the result.
They're
getting pretty fed up with him.
Unit 48 Noun + preposition
Main points
* `Of' can be used to add many different
types of information, `with' is used to specify a quality or possession.
* Some nouns are always followed by
particular prepositions.
1 You can give more information about a noun
by adding a prepositional phrase after it.
Four
men on holiday were in the car.
A
sound behind him made him turn.
2 You often use the preposition `of' after a
noun to add various kinds of information. For example, you can use `of' to
indicate:
* what something is made of or consists of
...a
wall of stone.
A
feeling of panic was rising in him.
* what the subject matter of speech,
writing, or a picture is
She
gave a brief account of her interview.
There
was a picture of them both in the paper.
* what a person or thing belongs to or is
connected with
She
was the daughter of the village priest.
The
boys sat on the floor of the living room.
* what qualities a person or thing has
She
was a woman of energy and ambition.
They
faced problems of great complexity.
3 After nouns referring to actions, you use
`of' to indicate the subject or object of the action.
...the
arrival of the police.
...the
destruction of their city.
After nouns referring to people who perform
an action, you use `of' to say what the action involves or is aimed at.
...supporters
of the hunger strike.
...a
student of English.
Note that you often use two nouns, rather
than a noun and a prepositional phrase. For example, you say `bank robbers',
not `robbers of the bank'.
4 After nouns referring to measurement, you
use `of' to give the exact figure.
...an
average annual temperature of 20 degrees.
...a
speed of 25 kilometres
an hour.
You can use `of' after a noun to give someone's
age.
Jonathan
was a child of seven when it happened.
5 You use `with' after a noun to say that a
person or thing has a particular quality, feature, or possession.
...a
girl with red hair.
...the
man with the gun.
Note that you use `in' after a noun to say
what someone is wearing.
...a
grey-haired man in a raincoat.
...the
man in dark glasses.
6 Some nouns are usually followed by a
particular preposition. Here are some examples of:
* nouns followed by `to'
alternative, answer, approach,
attitude, introduction, invitation, reaction, reference, resistance, return
This
was my first real introduction to Africa.
* nouns followed by `for'
admiration,
desire, dislike, need, reason, respect, responsibility, search, substitute,
taste, thirst
Their
need for money is growing fast.
* nouns followed by `on'
agreementattackcommenteffecttax
She
had a dreadful effect on me.
* nouns followed by `with' or `between'
connectioncontactlinkrelationship
His
illness had some connection with his diet.
* nouns followed by `in'
decreasedifficultyfallincreaserise
They
demanded a large increase in wages.
Unit 49 Verb + preposition
Main points
* Some verbs do not take an object and are
normally followed by a preposition.
* Some verbs take an object followed by a
particular preposition.
* Some verbs can take either an object or a
preposition.
1 Many verbs that are used without an object
are normally followed by a prepositional phrase. Some verbs take a particular
preposition:
belong
to, consist of, hint at, hope for, insist on, lead to, listen to, pay for,
qualify for, refer to, relate to, sympathize with
The
land belongs to a rich family.
She
then referred to the Minister's report.
2 With other verbs that are used without an
object, the choice of a different preposition may alter the meaning of the
clause.
agree
on/withapologize for/toresult from/in
appeal
for/toconform to/withsuffer from/with
They
agreed on a plan of action.
You
agreed with me that we should buy a car.
His
failure resulted from lack of attention to details.
The
match resulted in a draw.
3 With verbs that are used without an object,
different prepositions are used to introduce different types of information.
* `about' indicates the subject matter
caredreamhearspeakthink
complainexplainknowtalkwrite
We
will always care about freedom.
Tonight
I'm going to talk about engines.
* `at' indicates direction
glancegrinlooksmile
glarelaughshoutstare
I
don't know why he was laughing at that joke.
`Hey!'
she shouted at him.
* `for' indicates purpose or reason
apologizeapplyasklookwait
He
wanted to apologize for being late.
I'm
going to wait for the next bus.
* `into' indicates the object involved in a
collision
bumpcrashdriverun
His
car crashed into the wall.
She
drove into the back of a lorry.
* `of' indicates facts or information
hearknowspeaktalkthink
I've
heard of him but I don't know who he is.
Do
you know of the new plans for the sports centre?
* `on' indicates confidence or certainty
countdependplanrely
You
can count on me.
You
can rely on him to be polite.
* `to' indicates the listener or reader
complainlistenspeakwrite
explainsaytalk
They
complained to me about the noise.
Mary
turned her head to speak to him.
* `with' indicates someone whose opinion is
the same or different
agreearguedisagreeside
Do
you agree with me about this?
The
daughters sided with their mothers.
4 Some verbs have an object, but are also
followed by a preposition.
The
police accused him of murder.
They
borrowed some money from the bank.
Some verbs can take either an object or a
prepositional phrase with no change in meaning.
He
had to fight them .
He
was fighting against history.
Unit 50 Phrasal verbs
Main points
* A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb
and an adverb or preposition.
* The usual meaning of the verb is normally
altered.
* Phrasal verbs are used in four main
structures.
1 Phrasal verbs are verbs that combine with
adverbs or prepositions. The adverbs and prepositions are called particles, for
example `down', `in', `off', `out', and `up'.
She
turned off the radio.
Mr
Knight offered to put him up.
2 Phrasal verbs extend the usual meaning of
the verb or create a new meaning. For example, if you `break' something, you
damage it, but if you `break out of' a place, you escape from it.
They
broke out of prison on Thursday night.
The
pain gradually wore off.
3 Phrasal verbs are normally used in one of
four main structures. In the first structure, the verb is followed by a
particle, and there is no object.
break
outget bylook instop off
catch
ongive inring offwait up
check
upgo awaystart outwatch out
come
ingrow upstay upwear off
War
broke out in September.
You'll
have to stay up late tonight.
4 In the second structure, the verb is
followed by a particle and an object.
fall
forgrow onpart withset about
feel
forlook afterpick ontake after
She
looked after her invalid mother.
Peter
takes after his father but John is more like me.
5 In the third structure, the verb is
followed by an object and a particle.
answer
backcall backcount inorder about
ask
incatch outinvite outtell apart
I
answered him back and took my chances.
He
loved to order people about.
6 Some phrasal verbs can be used in both the
second structure and the third structure: verb followed by a particle and an
object, or verb followed by an object and a particle.
add
on, bring up, call up, fold up, hand over, knock over, point out, pull down,
put away, put up, rub out, sort out, take up, tear up, throw away, try out
It
took ages to clean up the mess.
It
took ages to clean the mess up.
There
was such a mess. It took ages to clean
it up.
WARNING: If the object is a pronoun, it
must go in front of the particle. You cannot say `He cleaned up it'.
7 In the fourth structure, the verb is
followed by a particle and a preposition with an object.
break
out of, catch up with, come down with, get on with, go down with, keep on at,
look forward to, make off with, miss out on, play around with, put up with, run
away with, stick up for, talk down to, walk out on
You
go on ahead. I'll catch up with you later.
Children
have to learn to stick up for themselves.
8 A very few verbs are used in the structure:
verb followed by an object, a particle, and a preposition with its object.
do
out of, let in for, put down to, put up to, take out on, talk out of
I'll
take you up on that generous invitation.
Kroop
tried to talk her out of it.
Unit 51 Verbs and objects
Main points
* Intransitive verbs do not have an object.
* Transitive verbs have an object.
* Some verbs can be used with or without an
object, depending on the situation or their meaning.
1 Many verbs do not normally have an object.
They are called `intransitive' verbs. They often refer to:
existence:appear
die disappear happen live remain
the
human body:ache bleed blush faint shiver smile
human
noises:cough cry laugh scream snore speak yawn
light,
smell, vibration:glow shine sparkle stink throb vibrate
position,
movement:arrive come depart fall flow go kneel run sit sleep stand
swim wait walk work
An
awful thing has happened.
The girl screamed.
I
waited.
Note that intransitive verbs cannot be used
in the passive.
2 Many verbs normally have an object. These
verbs are called `transitive' verbs. They are often connected with:
physical
objects:build buy carry catch cover cut destroy hit own remove sell
use waste wear
senses:feel
hear see smell taste touch
feelings:admire
enjoy fear frighten hate like love need prefer surprise trust want
facts,
ideas:accept believe correct discuss expect express forget include
know mean remember report
people:address
blame comfort contact convince defy kill persuade please tease thank warn
He
hit the ball really hard.
Did
you see the rainbow?
They
both enjoyed the film.
She
reported the accident to the police.
Don't
blame me.
Note that transitive verbs can be used in
the passive.
They
were blamed for everything.
WARNING: `Have' is a transitive verb, but
cannot be used in the passive. You can say `I have a car' but not `A car is had
by me'.
3 Often, the people you are talking to know
what the object is because of the situation, or because it has already been
mentioned. In this case you can omit the object, even though the verb is
transitive.
accept,
answer, change, choose, clean, cook, draw, drive, eat, explain, forget, help,
iron, know, learn, leave, paint, park, phone, read, remember, ride, sing,
steal, study, type, understand, wash, watch, write
I
don't own a car. I can't drive.
You
don't smoke, do you?
I
asked a question and George answered.
Both
dresses are beautiful. It's difficult to choose.
4 Many verbs have more than one meaning, and
are transitive in one meaning and intransitive in another meaning. For example,
the verb `run' is intransitive when you use it to mean `move quickly' but
transitive when you use it to mean `manage or operate'.
call,
fit, lose, manage, miss, move, play, run, show, spread
The
hare runs at enormous speed.
She
runs a hotel.
She
moved gracefully.
The
whole incident had moved her profoundly.
5 A few verbs are normally intransitive, but
can be used with an object that is closely related to the verb.
dance
(a dance), die (a death), dream (a dream), ,
laugh (a laugh), live (a life), sigh (a sigh), smile (a smile)
Steve smiled his thin, cruel
smile.
He
appears to have lived the life of any other rich gentleman.
I
once dreamed a very nice dream.
Note that you normally add more information
about the object, for example by using adjectives in front of the noun.
Unit 52 Verbs with two objects
Main points
* Some verbs have two objects, a direct
object and an indirect object.
* The indirect object can be used without a
preposition, or after `to' or `for'.
1 Some verbs have two objects after them, a
direct object and an indirect object. For example, in the sentence `I gave John
the book', `the book' is the direct object. `John' is the indirect object.
Verbs that have two objects are sometimes called `ditransitive' verbs or `double-transitive'
verbs.
His
uncle had given him books on India.
She
sends you her love.
I
passed him the cup.
2 When the indirect object is a pronoun, or
another short noun group such as a noun with `the', you put the indirect object
in front of the direct object.
Dad
gave me a car.
You
promised the lad a job.
He
had lent my cousin the money.
She
bought Dave and me an ice cream.
3 You can also use the prepositions `to' and
`for' to introduce the indirect object. If you do this, you put the preposition
and indirect object after the direct object.
He
handed his room key to the receptionist.
Bill
saved a piece of cake for the children.
When the indirect object consists of
several words, you normally use a preposition to introduce it.
She
taught physics and chemistry to pupils at the local school.
I
made that lamp for a seventy-year-old woman.
You often use a preposition when you want
to emphasize the indirect object.
Did
you really buy that for me?
4 With some verbs you can only use `for', not
`to', to introduce the indirect object.
bookcutmakeprepare
buyfindpaintsave
cookkeeppourwin
They
booked a place for me.
He
had found some old clothes for the beggar.
They
bought a present for the teacher.
She
painted a picture for her father.
5 With some verbs you normally use `to' to
introduce the indirect object.
givepayreadshow
lendpostsellteach
offerpromisesendtell
pass
I
had lent my bicycle to a friend.
Ralph
passed a message to Jack.
They
say they posted the letter to me last week.
He
sold it to me.
Note that you can use `for' with these
verbs, but it has a different meaning. `For' indicates that one person does
something on behalf of another person, so that the other person does not have
to do it.
His
mother paid the bill for him.
If
you're going out, can you post this for me, please?
Unit 53 Reflexive verbs
Main points
* Transitive verbs are used with a
reflexive pronoun to indicate that the object is the same as the subject, for
example: `I hurt myself'.
* Some verbs which do not normally have a
person as the object can have reflexive pronouns as the object.
1 You use a reflexive pronoun after a
transitive verb to indicate that the object is the same as the subject.
He
blamed himself for his friend's death.
I
taught myself French.
See Unit 20 for more information on
reflexive pronouns.
2 In theory, most transitive verbs can be
used with a reflexive pronoun. However, you often use reflexive pronouns with
the following verbs.
amusedryintroducerepeatteach
blamehelpkillrestrict
cuthurtpreparesatisfy
Sam
amused himself by throwing branches into the fire.
`Can
I borrow a pencil?' - `Yes, help yourself.'
Prepare
yourself for a shock.
He
introduced himself to me.
3 Verbs like `dress', `shave', and `wash',
which describe actions that people do to themselves, do not usually take
reflexive pronouns in English, although they do in some other languages. With
these verbs, reflexive pronouns are only used for emphasis.
I
usually shave before breakfast.
He
prefers to shave himself, even with that broken arm.
She
washed very quickly and rushed downstairs.
Children
were encouraged to wash themselves.
4 `Behave' does not normally take an object
at all, but can take a reflexive pronoun as object.
If
they don't behave, send them to bed.
He
is old enough to behave himself.
5 Some verbs do not normally have a person as
object, because they describe actions that you do not do to other people.
However, these verbs can have reflexive pronouns as object, because you can do
these actions to yourself.
apply,
compose, distance, enjoy, excel, exert, express, strain
I
really enjoyed the party.
Just
go out there and enjoy yourself.
She
expressed surprise at the news.
Professor
Dale expressed himself very forcibly.
6 When `busy' and `content' are used as
verbs, they always take a reflexive pronoun as their direct object. They are
therefore true `reflexive verbs'.
He
had busied himself in the laboratory.
I
had to content myself with watching the little moving lights.
Unit 54 Reciprocal verbs
Main points
* Some verbs describe two people or two
groups of people doing the same thing to each other, for example: `We met', `I
met you', `We met each other'.
* You use `each other' or `one another' for
emphasis.
* With some verbs, you use `each other' or
`one another' after `with'.
1 Some verbs refer to actions that involve
two people or two groups of people doing the same thing to each other. These
verbs are sometimes called `reciprocal' verbs.
We
met in Delhi.
Jane
and Sarah told me that they met you.
They
met each other for the first time last week.
2 The two people or groups of people involved
in the action are often mentioned as the plural subject of the verb, and the
verb does not have an object. For example, `John and Mary argued' means that
John argued with Mary and Mary argued with John.
argue,
clash, coincide, combine, compete, fight, kiss, marry, match, meet
The
pair of you have argued about that for years.
We
competed furiously.
Their
children are always fighting.
They
kissed.
3 When you want to emphasize that both people
or groups of people are equally involved, you can use the pronouns `each other'
or `one another' as the object of the verb. Verbs that refer to actions in
which there is physical contact between people are often used with `each other'
or `one another'.
cuddle,
embrace, fight, hug, kiss, touch
We
embraced each other.
They
fought one another desperately for it.
They
kissed each other in greeting.
It
was the first time they had touched one another.
4 Some verbs do not take an object, so you
use a preposition before `each other' or `one another'.
They
parted from each other after only two weeks.
We
talk to one another as often as possible.
5 With some verbs you have a choice of
preposition before `each other' or `one another'. For example, you can `fight
with' one another or `fight against' one another.
with/against:compete
fight
with/from:part
with/to:correspond
relate talk
Many
countries are competing with each other.
Did
you compete against each other in yesterday's race?
Stephen
and I parted with one another on good terms.
They
parted from one another quite suddenly.
6 With some verbs, you can only use `with'
before `each other' or `one another'. Note that most of these verbs refer to
people talking or working together.
agree,
argue, clash, collide, communicate, co-operate, disagree, quarrel
We
do agree with each other sometimes.
Have
they communicated with each other since then?
The
two lorries collided with one another on the motorway.
7 If you want to focus on one of the people
involved, you make them the subject of the verb and make the other person the
object.
She
married a young engineer.
You
could meet me at the restaurant.
If the verb cannot take an object, you
mention the other person after a preposition.
Youths
clashed with police in Belfast.
She
was always quarrelling with him.
Unit 55 Ergative verbs
Main points
* Ergative verbs are both transitive and
intransitive. The object of the transitive use is the subject of the
intransitive use, for example: `I opened the door', `The door opened'.
* A few verbs are only ergative with
particular nouns.
* A few of these verbs need an adverbial
when they are used without an object.
1 Some verbs can be used as transitive verbs
to focus on the person who performs an action, and as intransitive verbs to
focus on the thing affected by the action.
When
I opened the door, there was Laverne.
Suddenly
the door opened.
Note that the object of the transitive
verb, in this case `the door', is the subject of the intransitive verb. Verbs
like these are called `ergative' verbs.
2 Ergative verbs often refer to:
* changes
begin,
break, change, crack, dry, end, finish, grow, improve, increase, slow, start,
stop, tear
I
broke the glass.
The
glass broke all over the floor.
The
driver stopped the car.
A
big car stopped.
* cooking
bake,
boil, cook, defrost, fry, melt, roast, simmer
I've
boiled an egg.
The
porridge is boiling.
I'm
cooking spaghetti.
The
rice is cooking.
* position or movement
balance,
close, drop, move, open, rest, rock, shake, stand, turn
She
rested her head on his shoulder.
Her
head rested on the table.
An
explosion shook the hotel.
The
whole room shook.
* vehicles
backdrivereversesail
crashflyrun
He
had crashed the car twice.
Her
car crashed into a tree.
She
sailed her yacht round the world.
The
ship sailed on Monday.
3 Some verbs can be used in these two ways
only with a small set of nouns. For example, you can say `He fired a gun' or
`The gun fired'. You can do the same with other words referring to types of
gun, `cannon', `pistol', or `rifle'.
However, although you can say `He fired a bullet', you cannot say `The bullet
fired'.
catch:belt,
cloth, clothing, dress, shirt, trousers
fire:cannon,
gun, pistol, rifle
play:guitar,
music, piano, violin
ring:alarm,
bell
show:anger,
disappointment, emotions, fear, joy
sound:alarm,
bell, horn
I
caught my dress on the fence.
My
tights caught on a nail.
A
car was sounding its horn.
A
horn sounded in the night.
4 A few verbs can be used in both ways, but
need an adverbial when they are used without an object.
cleanhandlepolishstain
freezemarksellwash
He
sells books.
This
book is selling well.
She
had handled a machine gun.
This
car handles very nicely.
Unit 56 Common verb + noun patterns
Main points
* Examples are: `have a bath'; `give a
shout'; `make promises'; `take care'.
* Common verbs are often used with nouns to
describe actions.
* You use `have' with nouns referring to
eating, drinking, talking, and washing.
* You
use `give' with nouns referring to noises, hitting, and talking.
* You use `make' with nouns referring to
talking, plans, and travelling.
1 When you want to talk about actions, you
often use common verbs with nouns as their object. The nouns describe the
action. For example, if you say `I had a shower', the noun tells you what the
action was. The common verbs have very little meaning.
I
had a nice rest.
She
made a remark about the weather.
The nouns often have related verbs that do
not take an object.
Helen
went upstairs to rest.
I
remarked that it would be better if I came.
2 Different verbs are used with different
nouns.
You use `have' with nouns referring to:
meals:breakfast
dinner drink lunch meal taste tea
talking:chat
conversation discussion talk
washing:bath
shower wash
relaxation:break
holiday rest
disagreement:argument
fight quarrel trouble
We
usually have lunch at one o'clock.
He
was having his first holiday for five years.
3 You use `give' with nouns referring to:
human
noises:cry gasp giggle groan laugh scream shout sigh whistle yell
facial
expressions:grin smile
hitting:kick
punch push slap
talking:advice
answer example information interview lecture news report speech talk warning
Mr
Sutton gave a shout of triumph.
She
gave a long lecture about Roosevelt.
4 You use `make' with nouns referring to:
talking
and sounds:comment enquiry noise point promise remark sound speech
suggestion
plans:arrangement
choice decision plan
travelling:journey
tour trip visit
He
made the shortest speech I've ever heard.
In
1978 he made his first visit to Australia.
5 You use `take' with these nouns:
careinterestrisk
chanceoffencetime
chargephotographtrouble
decisionresponsibilityturns
He
was taking no chances.
She
was prepared to take great risks.
6 You use `go' and `come' with `-ing' nouns
referring to sports and outdoor activities.
She
goes climbing in her holidays.
Every
morning, he goes jogging with Tommy.
Note that you can also use `go for' and
`come for' with `a jog', `a run', `a swim', `a walk'.
They
went for a run before breakfast.
7 You use `do' with `-ing' nouns referring to
jobs connected with the home, and nouns referring generally to work.
He
wants to do the cooking.
He
does all the shopping and I do the washing.
The
man who did the job had ten years' training.
He
has to get up early and do a hard day's work.
`Do' is often used instead of more specific
verbs. For example, you can say `Have you done your teeth?' instead of `Have
you brushed your teeth?'
Do
I need to do my hair?
Unit 57 Auxiliary verbs
Main points
* The auxiliaries `be', `have', and `do'
are used in forming tenses, negatives, and questions.
* The auxiliary `be' is used in forming the
continuous tenses and the passive.
* The auxiliary `have' is used in forming
the perfect tenses.
* The auxiliary `do' is used in making
negative and question forms from sentences that have a verb in a simple tense.
1 The auxiliary verbs are `be', `have', and
`do'. They are used with a main verb to form tenses, negatives, and questions.
He
is planning to get married soon.
I haven't seen Peter since
last night.
Which
doctor do you want to see?
2 `Be' as an auxiliary is used:
* with the `-ing' form of the main verb to
form continuous tenses
He
is living in Germany.
They
were going to phone you.
* with the past participle of the main verb
to form the passive
These
cars are made in Japan.
The
walls of her flat were covered with posters.
3 You use `have' as an auxiliary with the
past participle to form the perfect tenses.
I
have changed my mind.
I
wish you had met Guy.
The present perfect continuous, the past
perfect continuous, and the perfect tenses in the passive, are formed using
both `have' and `be'.
He
has been working very hard recently.
She
did not know how long she had been lying there.
The
guest-room window has been mended.
They
had been taught by a young teacher.
4 `Be' and `have' are also used as
auxiliaries in negative sentences and questions in continuous and perfect
tenses, and in the passive.
He
isn't going.
Hasn't
she seen it yet?
Was
it written in English?
You use `do' as an auxiliary to make
negative and question forms from sentences that have a verb in the present
simple or past simple.
He
doesn't think he can come to the party.
Do
you like her new haircut?
She
didn't buy the house.
Didn't
he get the job?
Note that you can use `do' as a main verb
with the auxiliary `do'.
He
didn't do his homework.
Do
they do the work themselves?
You can also use the auxiliary `do' with
`have' as a main verb.
He
doesn't have any money.
Does
anyone have a question?
You only use `do' in affirmative sentences
for emphasis or contrast.
I
do feel sorry for Roger.
WARNING: You never use the auxiliary `do'
with `be' except in the imperative.
Don't
be stupid!
Do
be a good boy and sit still.
5 Some grammars include modals among the
auxiliary verbs. When there is a modal in the verb group, it is always the
first word in the verb group, and comes before the auxiliaries `be' and `have'.
She
might be going to Switzerland for Christmas.
I
would have liked to have seen her.
Note that you never use the auxiliary `do'
with a modal.
See Units 79-91 for more information on
modals.
Unit 58 The present tenses
Main points
* There are four present tenses - present
simple (`I walk'), present continuous (`I am walking'), present perfect (`I
have walked'), and present perfect continuous (`I have been walking').
* All the present tenses are used to refer
to a time which includes the present.
* Present tenses can also be used for
predictions made in the present about future events.
1 There are four tenses which begin with a
verb in the present tense. They are the present simple, the present continuous,
the present perfect, and the present perfect continuous. These are the present
tenses.
2 The present simple and the present
continuous are used with reference to present time. If you are talking about
the general present, or about a regular or habitual action, you use the present
simple.
George
lives in Birmingham.
They
often phone my mother in London.
If you are talking about something in the
present situation, you use the present continuous.
He's
playing tennis at the University.
I'm
cooking the dinner.
The present continuous is often used to
refer to a temporary situation.
She's
living in a flat at present.
3 You use the present perfect or the present
perfect continuous when you are concerned with the present effects of something
which happened at a time in the past, or which started in the past but is still
continuing.
Have
you seen the film at the Odeon?
We've
been waiting here since before two o'clock.
4 If you are talking about something which is
scheduled or timetabled to happen in the future, you can use the present simple
tense.
The
next train leaves at two fifteen in the morning.
It's
Tuesday tomorrow.
5 If you are talking about something which
has been arranged for the future, you can use the present continuous. When you
use the present continuous like this, there is nearly always a time adverbial
like `tomorrow', `next week', or `later' in the clause.
We're
going on holiday with my parents this year.
The
Browns are having a party next week.
6 It is only in the main clauses that the
choice of tense can be related to a particular time. In subordinate clauses,
for example in `if'- clauses, time clauses, and defining relative clauses,
present tenses often refer to a future time in relation to the time in the main
clause.
You
can go at five if you have finished.
Let's
have a drink before we start.
We'll
save some food for anyone who arrives late.
7 The present simple tense normally has no auxiliary
verb, but questions and negative sentences are formed with the auxiliary `do'.
Do
you live round here?
Does
your husband do most of the cooking?
They
don't often phone during the week.
She
doesn't like being late if she can help it.
Unit 59 The past tenses
Main points
* There are four past tenses - past simple
(`I walked'), past continuous (`I was walking'), past perfect (`I had walked'),
and past perfect continuous (`I had been walking').
* All the past tenses are used to refer to
past time.
* The past tenses are often used as polite
forms.
* The past tenses have special meanings in
conditional clauses and when referring to imaginary situations.
1 There are four tenses which begin with a
verb in the past tense. They are the past simple, the past continuous, the past
perfect, and the past perfect continuous. These are the past tenses. They are
used to refer to past time, and also to refer to imaginary situations, and to
express politeness.
2 The past simple and the past continuous are
used with reference to past time. You use the past simple for events which
happened in the past.
I
woke up early and got out of bed.
If you are talking about the general past,
or about regular or habitual actions in the past, you also use the past simple.
She
lived just outside London.
We
often saw his dog sitting outside his house.
If you are talking about something which
continued to happen before and after a particular time in the past, you use the
past continuous.
They
were sitting in the kitchen, when they heard the explosion.
Jack
arrived while the children were having their bath.
The past continuous is often used to refer
to a temporary situation.
He
was working at home at the time.
Bill
was using my office until I came back from America.
3 You use the past perfect and past perfect
continuous tenses when you are talking about the past and you are concerned
with something which happened at an earlier time, or which had started at an
earlier time but was still continuing.
I
had heard it was a good film so we decided to go and see it.
It
was getting late. I had been waiting there since two o'clock.
4 You sometimes use a past tense rather than
a present tense when you want to be more polite. For example, in the following
pairs of sentences, the second one is more polite.
Do
you want to see me now?
Did
you want to see me now?
I
wonder if you can help me.
I
was wondering if you could help me.
5 The past tenses have special meanings in
conditional clauses and when referring to hypothetical and imaginary
situations, for example after `I wish' or `What if...?'. You use the past
simple and past continuous for something that you think is unlikely to happen.
If
they saw the mess, they would be very angry.
We
would tell you if we were selling the house.
You use the past perfect and past perfect
continuous when you are talking about something which could have happened in
the past, but which did not actually happen.
If
I had known that you were coming, I would have told Jim.
They
wouldn't have gone to bed if they had been expecting you to arrive.
Unit 60 The continuous tenses
Main points
* Continuous tenses describe actions which
continue to happen before and after a particular time.
* Continuous tenses can also indicate
duration and change.
1 You use a continuous tense to indicate that
an action continues to happen before and after a particular time, without
stopping. You use the present continuous for actions which continue to happen
before and after the moment of speaking.
I'm
looking at the photographs my brother sent me.
They're
having a meeting.
2 When you are talking about two actions in
the present tense, you use the present continuous for an action that continues
to happen before and after another action that interrupts it. You use the
present simple for the other action.
The
phone always rings when I'm having a bath.
Friends
always talk to me when I'm trying to study.
3 When you are talking about the past, you
use the past continuous for actions that continued to happen before and after
another action, or before and after a particular time. This is often called the
`interrupted past'. You use the past simple for the other action.
He
was watching television when the doorbell rang.
It
was 6 o'clock. The train was nearing London.
WARNING: If two things happened one after
another, you use two verbs in the past simple tense.
As
soon as he saw me, he waved.
4 You can use continuous forms with modals in
all their usual meanings.
See Units 79 to 91 for more information on
modals.
What
could he be thinking of?
They
might be telling lies.
5 You use continuous tenses to express
duration, when you want to emphasize how long something has been happening or
will happen for.
We
had been living in Athens for five years.
They'll
be staying with us for a couple of weeks.
He
has been building up the business all his life.
By
1992, he will have been working for ten years.
Note that you do not have to use continuous
tenses for duration.
We
had lived in Africa for five years.
He
worked for us for ten years.
6 You use continuous tenses to describe a
state or situation that is temporary.
I'm
living in London at the moment.
He'll
be working nights next week.
She's
spending the summer in Europe.
7 You use continuous tenses to show that
something is changing, developing, or progressing.
Her
English was improving.
The children are growing up quickly.
The
video industry has been developing rapidly.
8 As a general rule, verbs which refer to
actions that require a deliberate effort can be used in continuous tenses, verbs
which refer to actions that do not require a deliberate effort are not used in
continuous tenses.
I
think it's going to rain. (`think' = `believe'. Believing does not require
deliberate effort)
Please
be quiet. I'm thinking . (`think' = `try to solve a problem'. Trying to solve a
problem does require deliberate effort)
However, many verbs are not normally used
in the continuous tenses. These include verbs that refer to thinking, liking
and disliking, appearance, possession, and perception.
See Unit 62 for lists of these verbs.
Unit 61 The perfect tenses
Main points
* You use the present perfect (`I have
walked') to relate the past to the present.
* You use the past perfect (`I had walked')
to talk about a situation that occurred before a particular time in the past.
1 You use the present perfect tense when you
are concerned with the present effects of something which happened at an
indefinite time in the past.
I'm
afraid I've forgotten my book.
Have
you heard from Jill recently?
Sometimes, the present effects are
important because they are very recent.
Karen
has just passed her exams.
You also use the present perfect when you
are thinking of a time which started in the past and is still continuing.
Have
you really lived here for ten years?
He
has worked here since 1987.
You also use the present perfect in time
clauses, when you are talking about something which will be done at some time
in the future.
Tell
me when you have finished.
I'll
write to you as soon as I have heard from Jenny.
2 When you want to emphasize the fact that a
recent event continued to happen for some time, you use the present perfect
continuous.
She's
been crying.
I've
been working hard all day.
3 You use the past perfect tense when you are
looking back from a point in past time, and you are concerned with the effects
of something which happened at an earlier time in the past.
I
apologized because I had forgotten my book.
He
felt much happier once he had found a new job.
They
would have come if we had invited them.
You also use the past perfect when you are
thinking of a time which had started earlier in the past but was still
continuing.
I
was about twenty. I had been studying French for a couple of years.
He
hated games and had always managed to avoid children's parties.
4 You use the future perfect tense when you
are looking back from a point in the future and you are talking about something
which will have happened at a time between now and that future point.
In
another two years, you will have left school.
Take
these tablets, and in twenty-four hours the pain will have gone.
You also use the future perfect when you
are looking back from the present and guessing that an action will be finished.
I'm
sure they will have arrived home by now.
It's
too late to ring Don. He will have left the house by now.
5 You can also use other modals with `have',
when you are looking back from a point in time at something which you think may
have happened at an earlier time.
I
might have finished work by then.
He
should have arrived in Paris by the time we phone.
For more information on modals with `have',
see Units 79 to 91.
Unit 62 Talking about the present
Main points
* For the general present, general truths,
and habitual actions, you use the present simple (`I walk').
* For something which is happening now, or
for temporary situations, you use the present continuous (`I am walking').
1 If you are talking about the present in
general, you normally use the present simple tense. You use the present simple
for talking about the general present including the present moment.
My
dad works in Saudi Arabia.
He
lives in the French Alps near the Swiss border.
2 If you are talking about general truths,
you use the present simple.
Water
boils at 100 degrees centigrade.
Love
makes the world go round.
The
bus takes longer than the train.
3 If you are talking about regular or
habitual actions, you use the present simple.
Do
you eat meat?
I
get up early and eat my breakfast in bed.
I
pay the milkman on Fridays.
4 If you are talking about something which is
regarded as temporary, you use the present continuous.
Do
you know if she's still playing tennis these days?
I'm
working as a British Council officer.
5 If you are talking about something which is
happening now, you normally use the present continuous tense.
We're
having a meeting. Come and join in.
Wait
a moment. I'm listening to the news.
6 There are a number of verbs which are used
in the present simple tense even when you are talking about the present moment.
These verbs are not normally used in the present continuous or the other
continuous tenses. These verbs usually refer to:
thinking:believe forget
imagine know realize
recognize suppose think
understand want wish
liking
and disliking:admire
dislike hate like
love prefer
appearance:appear look like
resemble seem
possession:belong
to contain have
include own possess
perception:hear see
smell taste
being:be consist of
exist
I
believe he was not to blame.
She
hates going to parties.
Our
neighbours have two cars.
Note
that you normally use verbs of perception with the modal `can', rather than
using the present simple tense.
I can
smell gas.
Some other common verbs are not normally
used in the present continuous or the other continuous tenses.
concern,
deserve, fit, interest, involve, matter, mean, satisfy, surprise
What
do you mean?
WARNING: Some of the verbs listed above can
be used in continuous tenses in other meanings. For example, `have' referring
to possession is not used in continuous tenses. You do not say `I am having a
car'. But note the following examples.
We're
having a party tomorrow.
He's
having problems with his car.
She's
having a shower.
Unit 63 Talking about the past
Main points
* For actions, situations, or regular
events in the past, you use the past simple (`I walked'). For regular events in
the past, you can also use `would' or `used to'.
* For events that happened before and after
a time in the past, and for temporary situations, you use the past continuous
(`I was walking').
* For present effects of past situations,
you use the present perfect (`I have walked'), and for past effects of earlier
events you use the past perfect (`I had walked').
* For future in the past, you use `would',
`was/were going to', or the past continuous (`I was walking').
1 When you want to talk about an event that
occurred at a particular time in the past, you use the past simple.
The
Prime Minister flew into New York yesterday.
The
new term started last week.
You also use the past simple to talk about
a situation that existed over a period of time in the past.
We
spent most of our time at home last winter.
They
earned their money quickly that year.
2 When you want to talk about something which
took place regularly in the past, you use the past simple.
They
went for picnics most weekends.
We
usually spent the winter at Aunt Meg's house.
WARNING: The past simple always refers to a
time in the past. A time reference is necessary to say what time in the past
you are referring to. The time reference can be established in an earlier
sentence or by another speaker, but it must be established.
When you want to talk about something which
occurred regularly in the past, you can use `would' or `used to' instead of the
past simple.
We
would normally spend the winter in Miami.
People
used to believe that the world was flat.
WARNING: You do not normally use `would'
with this meaning with verbs which are not used in the continuous tenses.
For a list of these verbs, see Unit 62.
3 When you want to talk about something which
continued to happen before and after a given time in the past, you use the past
continuous.
I
hurt myself when I was mending my bike.
It
was midnight. She was driving home.
You also use the past continuous to talk
about a temporary state of affairs in the past.
Our
team were losing 2-1 at the time.
We
were staying with friends in Italy.
For more information on continuous tenses,
see Unit 60.
4 When you are concerned with the present
effects or future effects of something which happened at an indefinite time in
the past, you use the present perfect.
I'm
afraid I've forgotten my book, so I don't know.
Have
you heard from Jill recently? How is she?
You also use the present perfect when you
are thinking of a time which started in the past and still continues.
Have
you ever stolen anything? (= at any time up to the present)
He
has been here since six o'clock. (= and he is still here)
5 When you are looking back from a point in
past time, and you are concerned with the effects of something which happened
at an earlier time in the past, you use the past perfect.
I
apologized because I had left my wallet at home.
They
would have come if we had invited them.
6 When you want to talk about the future from
a point of view in past time, you can use `would', `was / were going to', or
the past continuous.
He
thought to himself how wonderful it would taste.
Her
daughter was going to do the cooking.
Mike
was taking his test the week after.
Unit 64 `Will' and `going to'
Main points
* When you are making predictions about the
future or talking about future intentions, you can use either `will' (`I will
walk') or `going to' (`I am going to walk').
* For promises and offers relating to the
future, you use `will' (`I will walk').
* For future events based on arrangements,
you use the future continuous (`I will be walking').
* For events that will happen before a time
in the future, you use the future perfect (`I will have walked').
1 You cannot talk about the future with as
much certainty as you can about the present or the past. You are usually
talking about what you think might happen or what you intend to happen. This is
why you often use modals. Although most modals can be used with future
reference, you most often use the modal `will' to talk about the future.
Nancy
will arrange it.
When
will I see them?
2 When you are making predictions about the
future that are based on general beliefs, opinions, or attitudes, you use
`will'.
The
weather tomorrow will be warm and sunny.
I'm
sure you will enjoy your visit to the zoo.
This use of `will' is common in sentences
with conditional clauses.
You'll
be late, if you don't hurry.
When you are using facts or events in the
present situation as evidence for a prediction, you can use `going to'.
It's
going to rain . (I can see black clouds)
I'm
going to be late. (I have missed my train)
3 When you are saying what someone has
decided to do, you use `going to'.
They're
going to have a party.
I'm
going to stay at home today.
WARNING: You do not normally use `going to'
with the verb `go'. You usually just say `I'm going' rather than `I'm going to
go'.
`What
are you going to do this weekend?' - `I'm going to the cinema.'
When you are announcing a decision you have
just made or are about to make, you use `will'.
I'm
tired. I think I'll go to bed.
4 In promises and offers relating to the
future, you often use `will' with the meaning `be willing to'.
I'll
do what I can.
I'll
help with the washing-up.
Note that you can use `will' with this
meaning in an `if'-clause.
I'll
put you through, if you'll hang on for a minute. (= if you are willing to hang
on for a minute)
WARNING: Remember that you do not normally
use `will' in `if'-clauses.
See Unit 66 for more information on
`if'-clauses.
If
you do that, you will be wasting your time.
The
children will call out if they think he is wrong.
5 When you want to say that something will
happen because arrangements have been made, you use the future continuous tense.
I'll
be seeing them when I've finished with you.
I'll
be waiting for you outside.
She'll
be appearing at the Royal Festival Hall.
6 When you want to talk about something that
has not happened yet but will happen before a particular time in the future,
you use the future perfect tense.
By
the time we phone he'll already have started.
By
2010, he will have worked for twelve years.
Unit 65 Present tenses for future
Main points
* When you are talking about the future in
relation to official timetables or the calendar, you use the present simple (`I
walk').
* When talking about people's plans and
arrangements for the future, you use the present continuous (`I am walking').
* In `if'-clauses, time clauses, and
defining relative clauses, you can use the present simple (`I walk') to refer
to the future.
1 When you are talking about something in the
future which is based on an official timetable or calendar, you use the present
simple tense. You usually put a time adverbial in these sentences.
My
last train leaves Euston at 11.30.
The
UN General Assembly opens in New York this month.
Our
next lesson is on Thursday.
We
set off early tomorrow morning.
2 In statements about fixed dates, you
normally use the present simple.
Tomorrow
is Tuesday.
It's
my birthday next month.
Monday
is the seventeenth of July.
3 When you want to talk about people's plans
or arrangements for the future, you use the present continuous tense.
I'm
meeting Bill next week.
They're
getting married in June.
4 You often talk about the future using the
present tense of verbs such as `hope', `expect', `intend', and `want' with a
`to'-infinitive clause, especially when you want to indicate your uncertainty
about what will actually happen.
We
hope to see you soon.
Bill
expects to be back at work tomorrow.
After the verb `hope', you often use the
present simple to refer to the future.
I
hope you enjoy your holiday.
5 In subordinate clauses, the relationships
between tense and time are different. In `if'-clauses and time clauses, you
normally use the present simple for future reference.
If
he comes, I'll let you know.
Please
start when you are ready.
We
won't start until everyone arrives.
Lock
the door after you finally leave.
6 In defining relative clauses, you normally
use the present simple, not `will', to refer to the future.
Any
decision that you make will need her approval.
Give
my love to any friends you meet.
There
is a silver cup for the runner who finishes first.
7 If you want to show that a condition has to
be the case before an action can be carried out, you use the present perfect
for future events.
We
won't start until everyone has arrived.
I'll
let you know when I have arranged everything.
Unit 66 Conditionals using `if'
Main points
* You use conditional clauses to talk about
a possible situation and its results.
* Conditional clauses can begin with `if'.
* A
conditional clause needs a main clause to make a complete sentence. The
conditional clause can come before or after the main clause.
1 You use conditional clauses to talk about a
situation that might possibly happen and to say what its results might be.
You use `if' to mention events and
situations that happen often, that may happen in the future, that could have
happened in the past but did not happen, or that are unlikely to happen at all.
If
the light comes on, the battery is OK.
I'll
call you if I need you.
If
I had known, I'd have told you.
If
she asked me, I'd help her.
2 When you are talking about something that
is generally true or happens often, you use a present or present perfect tense
in the main clause and the conditional clause.
If
they lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it afterwards.
If
an advertisement does not tell the truth, the advertiser is committing an
offence.
If
the baby is crying, it is probably hungry.
If
they have lost any money, they report it to me.
WARNING: You do not use the present
continuous in both clauses. You do not say `If they are losing money, they are
getting angry.'
3 When you use a conditional clause with a
present or present perfect tense, you often use an imperative in the main
clause.
Wake
me up if you're worried.
If
he has finished, ask him to leave quietly.
If
you are very early, don't expect them to be ready.
4 When you are talking about something which
may possibly happen in the future, you use a present or present perfect tense
in the conditional clause, and the simple future in the main clause.
If
I marry Celia, we will need the money.
If
you are going to America, you will need a visa.
If
he has done the windows, he will want his money.
WARNING: You do not normally use `will' in
conditional clauses. You do not say `If I will see you tomorrow, I will give
you the book'.
5 When you are talking about something that
you think is unlikely to happen, you use the past simple or past continuous in
the conditional clause and `would' in the main clause.
If
I had enough money, I would buy the car.
If
he was coming , he would ring.
WARNING: You do not normally use `would' in
conditional clauses. You do not say `If I would do it, I would do it like
this'.
6 `Were' is sometimes used instead of `was'
in the conditional clause, especially after `I'.
If
I were as big as you, I would kill you.
If
I weren't so busy, I would do it for you.
You often say `If I were you' when you are
giving someone advice.
If
I were you, I would take the money.
I
should keep out of Bernadette's way if I were you.
7 When you are talking about something which
could have happened in the past but which did not actually happen, you use the
past perfect in the conditional clause. In the main clause, you use `would
have' and a past participle.
If
he had realized that, he would have run away.
I
wouldn't have been so depressed if I had known how common this feeling is.
WARNING: You do not use `would have' in the
conditional clause. You do not say `If I would have seen him, I would have told
him'.
Unit 67 `If' with modals; `unless'
Main points
* You can use a modal in a conditional
clause.
* You
use `unless' to mention an exception to what you are saying.
1 You sometimes use modals in conditional
clauses. In the main clause, you can still use a present tense for events that
happen often, `will' for events that are quite likely in the future, `would'
for an event that is unlikely to happen, and `would have' for events that were
possible but did not happen.
If
he can't come, he usually phones me.
If
they must have it today, they will have to come back at five o'clock.
If
I could only find the time, I'd do it gladly.
If
you could have seen him, you would have laughed too.
`Should' is sometimes used in conditional
clauses to express greater uncertainty.
If
any visitors should come, I'll say you aren't here.
2 You can use other modals besides `will',
`would' and `would have' in the main clause with their usual meanings.
She
might phone me, if she has time.
You
could come, if you wanted to.
If
he sees you leaving, he may cry.
Note that you can have modals in both
clauses: the main clause and the conditional clause.
If
he can't come, he will phone.
See Units 79 to 91 for more information.
3 In formal English, if the first verb in a
conditional clause is `had', `should', or `were', you can put the verb at the
beginning of the clause and omit `if'.
For example, instead of saying `If he
should come, I will tell him you are sick', it is possible to say `Should he
come, I will tell him you are sick'.
Should
ministers decide to hold an inquiry, we would welcome it.
Were
it all true, it would still not excuse their actions.
Had
I known, I would not have done it.
4 When you want to mention an exception to
what you are saying, you use a conditional clause beginning with `unless'.
You will fail your exams.
You
will fail your exams unless you work harder.
Note that you can often use `if...not'
instead of `unless'.
You
will fail your exams if you do not work harder.
When you use `unless', you use the same
tenses that you use with `if'.
She
spends Sundays in the garden unless the weather is awful.
We
usually walk, unless we're going shopping.
He
will not let you go unless he is forced to do so.
You
wouldn't believe it, unless you saw it.
5 `If' and `unless' are not the only ways of
beginning conditional clauses. You can also use `as long as', `only if',
`provided', `provided that', `providing', `providing that', or `so long as'.
These expressions are all used to indicate that one thing only happens or is true
if another thing happens or is true.
We
were all right as long as we kept our heads down.
I
will come only if nothing is said to the press.
She
was prepared to come, provided that she could bring her daughter.
Providing
they remained at a safe distance, we would be all right.
Detergent
cannot harm a fabric, so long as it has been properly dissolved.
Unit 68 I wish, If only, ..as if..
Main points
* You use `I wish' and `If only' to talk
about wishes and regrets.
* You use `..as if..' and `..as though..'
to show that information in a manner clause is not or might not be true.
1 You can express what you want to happen now
by using `I wish' or `If only' followed by a past simple verb.
I
wish he wasn't here.
If
only she had a car.
Note that in formal English, you sometimes
use `were' instead of `was' in sentences like these.
I
often wish that I were really wealthy.
When you want to express regret about past
events, you use the past perfect.
I
wish I hadn't married him.
When you want to say that you wish that
someone was able to do something, you use `could'.
If
only they could come with us!
When you want to say that you wish that
someone was willing to do something, you use `would'.
If
only they would realise how stupid they've been.
2 When you want to indicate that the
information in a manner clause might not be true, or is definitely not true,
you use `as if' or `as though'.
She
reacted as if she didn't know about the race.
She
acts as though she owns the place.
After `as if' or `as though', you often use
a past tense even when you are talking about the present, to emphasize that the
information in the manner clause is not true. In formal English, you use `were'
instead of `was'.
Presidents
can't dispose of companies as if people didn't exist.
She
treats him as though he was her own son.
He
looked at me as though I were mad.
3 You can also use `as if' or `as though' to
say how someone or something feels, looks, or sounds.
She
felt as if she had a fever.
He
looked as if he hadn't slept very much.
Mary
sounded as though she had just run all the way.
You can also use `it looks' and `it sounds'
with `as if' and `as though'.
It
looks to me as if he wrote down some notes.
It
sounds to me as though he's just being awkward.
4 When the subject of the manner clause and
the main clause are the same, you can often use a participle in the manner
clause and omit the subject and the verb `be'.
He ran off to the house as if
escaping.
He
shook his head as though dazzled by his own vision.
You can also use `as if' or `as though'
with a `to'-infinitive clause.
As
if to remind him, the church clock struck eleven.
5 In informal speech, people often use `like'
instead of `as if' or `as' to say how a person feels, looks, or sounds. Some
speakers of English think that this use of `like' is incorrect.
He
felt like he'd won the pools.
You
look like you've seen a ghost.
You
talk just like my father does.
You can also use `like' in prepositional
phrases to say how someone does something.
He
was sleeping like a baby.
I
behaved like an idiot , and I'm sorry.
Unit 69 Verbs with `-ing' clauses
Main points
* Many verbs are followed by an `-ing'
clause.
* Some verbs are followed by an object and
an `-ing' clause that describes what the object is doing.
1 Many verbs are followed by an `-ing'
clause. The subject of the verb is also the subject of the `-ing' clause. The
`-ing' clause begins with an `-ing' form. The most common of these verbs are:
* verbs of saying and thinking
admit,
consider, deny, describe, imagine, mention, recall, suggest
He
denied taking drugs.
I
suggested meeting her for a coffee.
Note that all of these verbs except for
`describe' can also be followed by a `that'-clause. See Unit 76.
He
denied that he was involved.
* verbs of liking and disliking
adore,
detest, dislike, dread, enjoy, fancy, like, love, mind, resent
Will
they enjoy using it?
I
don't mind telling you.
`Like' and `love' can also be followed by a
`to'-infinitive clause. See Unit 71.
* other common verbs
avoidcommencedelayfinishinvolvekeep
misspostponepractiseresistriskstop
I've
just finished reading that book.
Avoid
giving any unnecessary information.
* common phrasal verbs
burst
out, carry on, end up, give up, go round, keep on, put off, set about
She
carried on reading.
They
kept on walking for a while.
Note that some common phrases can be
followed by an `-ing' clause.
can't
helpcan't standfeel like
I
can't help worrying.
2 After the verbs and phrases mentioned
above, you can also use `being' followed by a past participle.
They
enjoy being praised.
I
dislike being interrupted.
After some verbs of saying and thinking,
you can use `having' followed by a past participle.
admitdenymentionrecall
Michael
denied having seen him.
3 `Come' and `go' are used with `-ing'
clauses to describe the way that a person or thing moves.
They
both came running out.
It
went sliding across the road out of control.
`Go' and `come' are also used with `-ing'
nouns to talk about sports and outdoor activities. See Unit 56.
Did
you say they might go camping?
4 Some verbs can be followed by an object and
an `-ing' clause. The object of the verb is the subject of the `-ing' clause.
catchimaginepreventwatch
findleavestop
It
is hard to imagine him existing without it.
He
left them making their calculations.
Note that `prevent' and `stop' are often
used with `from' in front of the `-ing' clause.
I
wanted to prevent him from seeing that.
Most verbs of perception can be followed by
an object and an `-ing' clause or a base form. See Unit 72.
I
saw him riding a bicycle.
I
saw a policeman walk over to one of them.
See also Unit 94 for `-ing' clauses after
nouns.
Unit 70 Infinitives
Main points
* Some verbs are followed by a
`to'-infinitive clause. Others are followed by an object and a `to'-infinitive
clause.
* Some verbs are followed by a `wh'-word
and a `to'-infinitive clause. Others are followed by an object, a `wh'-word,
and a `to'-infinitive clause.
* Nouns are followed by `to'-infinitive
clauses that indicate the aim, purpose
or necessity of something, or that give extra information.
1 Some verbs are followed by a
`to'-infinitive clause. The subject of the verb is also the subject of the
`to'-infinitive clause.
* verbs of saying and thinking
agreeexpectlearnplan
choosehopemeanpromise
decideintendofferrefuse
She
had agreed to let us use her flat.
I
decided not to go out for the evening.
* other verbs
failmanagepretendtendwant
England
failed to win a place in the finals.
2 Some verbs are followed by an object and a
`to'-infinitive clause. The object of the verb is the subject of the
`to'-infinitive clause.
* verbs of saying and thinking
adviseencourageinvitepersuadeteach
askexpectorderremindtell
I
asked her to explain.
They
advised us not to wait around too long.
* other verbs
allowforcegethelpwant
I
could get someone else to do it.
I
didn't want him to go.
Note
that `help' can also be followed by an object and a base form.
I
helped him fix it.
WARNING: You do not use `want' with a
`that'-clause. You do not say `I want that you do something'.
3 Some verbs are followed by `for' and an
object, then a `to'-infinitive clause. The object of `for' is the subject of
the `to'-infinitive clause.
appealaskpaywish
arrangelongwait
Could
you arrange for a taxi to collect us?
I
waited for him to speak.
4 Some link verbs, and `pretend' are followed
by `to be' and an `-ing' form for continuing actions, and by `to have' and a
past participle for finished actions. See also Unit 73.
We
pretended to be looking inside.
I
don't appear to have written down his name.
5 Some verbs are normally used in the passive
when they are followed by a `to'-infinitive clause.
believe,
consider, feel, find, know, report, say, think, understand
He
is said to have died a natural death.
Is
it thought to be a good thing?
6 Some verbs are followed by a `wh'-word and
a `to'-infinitive clause. These include:
askexplainimaginelearnunderstand
decideforgetknowrememberwonder
I
didn't know what to call him.
She
had forgotten how to ride a bicycle.
Some verbs are followed by an object, then
a `wh'-word and a `to'-infinitive clause.
askremindshowteachtell
I
asked him what to do.
Who
will show him how to use it?
Some verbs only take `to'-infinitive
clauses to express purpose.
See Unit 97.
The
captain stopped to reload the gun.
He
went to get some fresh milk.
7 You use a `to'-infinitive clause after a
noun to indicate the aim of an action or the purpose of a physical object.
We
arranged a meeting to discuss the new rules.
He
had nothing to write with.
You also use a `to'-infinitive clause after
a noun to say that something needs to be done.
I
gave him several things to mend.
`What's
this?' - `A list of things to remember.'
8 You use a `to'-infinitive clause after a
noun group that includes an ordinal number, a superlative, or a word like
`next', `last', or `only'.
She
was the first woman to be elected to the council.
Mr
Holmes was the oldest person to be chosen.
The
only person to speak was James.
9 You use a `to'-infinitive clause after
abstract nouns to give more specific information about them.
All
it takes is a willingness to learn.
He'd
lost the ability to communicate with people.
The following abstract nouns are often
followed by a `to'-infinitive clause:
ability,
attempt, chance, desire, failure, inability, need, opportunity, unwillingness,
willingness
Note that the verbs or adjectives which are
related to these nouns can also be followed by a `to'-infinitive clause. For
example, you can say `I attempted to find them', and `He was willing to learn'.
See Unit 95 for information on nouns that
are related to reporting verbs and can be followed by a `to'-infinitive clause.
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