Unit 16 Personal pronouns
Main points
* You use personal pronouns to refer back
to something or someone that has already been mentioned.
* You also use personal pronouns to refer
to people and things directly.
* There are two sets of personal pronouns:
subject pronouns and object pronouns.
* You can use `you' and `they' to refer to
people in general.
1 When something or someone has already been
mentioned, you refer to them again by using a pronoun.
John
took the book and opened it.
He
rang Mary and invited her to dinner.
`Have
you been to London ?' - `Yes, it was
very crowded.'
My
father is fat - he weighs over fifteen stone.
In English, `he' and `she' normally refer
to people, occasionally to animals, but very rarely to things.
2 You use a pronoun to refer directly to
people or things that are present or are involved in the situation you are in.
Where
shall we meet, Sally?
I
do the washing; he does the cooking; we share the washing-up.
Send
us a card so we 'll know where you are.
3 There
are two sets of personal pronouns, subject pronouns and object pronouns. You
use subject pronouns as the subject of a verb.
Iyouhesheitwethey
Note that `you' is used for the singular
and plural form.
We
are going there later.
I
don't know what to do.
4 You use object pronouns as the direct or
indirect object of a verb.
meyouhimheritusthem
Note that `you' is used for the singular
and plural form.
The
nurse washed me with cold water.
The
ball hit her in the face.
John
showed him the book.
Can
you give me some more cake?
Note that, in modern English, you use
object pronouns rather than subject pronouns after the verb `be'.
`Who
is it?' - `It's me.'
There
was only John, Baz, and me in the room.
You
also use object pronouns as the object of a preposition.
We
were all sitting in a cafe with him.
Did
you give it to them?
5 You can use `you' and `they' to talk about
people in general.
You
have to drive on the other side of the road on the continent.
They
say she's very clever.
6 You can use `it' as an impersonal subject
in general statements which refer to the time, the date, or the weather.
See Unit 17.
`What
time is it?' - ` It 's half past three.'
It
is January 19th.
It
is rainy and cold.
You can also use `it' as the subject or
object in general statements about a situation.
It
is too far to walk.
I
like it here. Can we stay a bit longer?
7 A singular pronoun usually refers back to a
singular noun group, and a plural pronoun to a plural noun group. However, you
can use plural pronouns to refer back to:
* indefinite pronouns, even though they are
always followed by a singular verb
If
anybody comes, tell them I'm not in.
* collective nouns, even when you have used
a singular verb
His
family was waiting in the next room, but they had not yet been informed.
Unit 17 Impersonal subject `it'
Main points
* You use impersonal `it' as the subject of
a sentence to introduce new information.
* You use `it' to talk about the time or
the date.
* You use `it' to talk about the weather.
* You use `it' to express opinions about
places, situations, and events.
* `It' is often used with the passive of
reporting verbs to express general beliefs and opinions.
1 `It' is a pronoun. As a personal pronoun it
refers back to something that has already been mentioned.
They
learn to speak English before they learn to read it.
Maybe
he changed his mind, but I doubt it.
You can also use `it' as the subject of a
sentence when it does not refer back to anything that has already been
mentioned. This impersonal use of `it' introduces new information, and is used
particularly to talk about times, dates, the weather, and personal opinions.
2 You use impersonal `it' with a form of `be'
to talk about the time or the date.
It
is nearly one o' clock.
It's
the sixth of April today.
3 You use impersonal `it' with verbs which
refer to the weather:
drizzlepoursleetthunder
hailrainsnow
It's
still raining.
It
snowed steadily through the night.
It
was pouring with rain.
You can describe the weather by using `it'
followed by `be' and an adjective with or without a noun.
It's
a lovely day.
It
was very bright.
You can describe a change in the weather by
using `it' followed by `get' and an adjective.
It
was getting cold.
It's
getting dark.
4 You use impersonal `it', followed by a form
of `be' and an adjective or noun group,
to express your opinion about a place, a situation, or an event. The
adjective or noun group can be followed by an adverbial or by an `-ing' clause,
a `to'-infinitive clause, or a `that'-clause.
It
was terribly cold in the trucks.
It's
fun working for him.
It
was a pleasure to be there.
It's
strange that it hasn't been noticed before.
5 You use `it' followed by a verb such as
`interest', `please', `surprise', or `upset' which indicates someone's reaction
to a fact, situation, or event. The verb is followed by a noun group, and a
`that'-clause or a `to'-infinitive clause.
It
pleases me that he should want to talk about his work.
It
surprised him to realize that he hadn't thought about them until now.
6 You can also use `it' with the passive of a
reporting verb and a `that'-clause when you want to suggest that an opinion or
belief is shared by many people. This use is particularly common in news
reports, for example in newspapers, on the radio, or on television.
It
was said that he could speak their language.
Nowadays
it is believed that the size is unimportant.
It
is thought that about a million puppies are born each year.
Note that the passive of reporting verbs
can also be used without impersonal `it' to express general opinions.
The
factories were said to be much worse.
They
are believed to be dangerous.
See Units 76 and 77 for more information on
reporting verbs.
Unit 18 Impersonal subject `there'
Main points
* You use `there' followed by a form of
`be' and a noun group to introduce new information.
* You use `there' with a singular or plural
verb, depending on whether the following noun is singular or plural.
* You can also use `there' with modals.
1 `There' is often an adverb of place.
Are
you comfortable there?
The
book is there on the table.
You can also use `there' as the impersonal
subject of a sentence when it does not refer to a place. In this case you use
`there' to introduce new information and to focus upon it. After `there' you
use a form of `be' and a noun group.
There
is work to be done.
There
will be a party tonight.
There
was no damage.
There
have been two telephone calls.
Note that the impersonal subject `there' is
often pronounced without stress, whereas the adverb is almost always stressed.
2 You use `there' as the impersonal subject
to talk about:
* the existence or presence of someone or
something
There
are two people who might know what happened.
There
are many possibilities.
There
is plenty of bread.
* something that happens
There
was a general election that year.
There's
a meeting every week.
There
was a fierce battle.
* a number or amount
There
are forty of us, I think.
There
is a great deal of anger about his decision.
There
were a lot of people camped there.
3 When the noun group after the verb is
plural, you use a plural verb.
There
are many reasons for this.
There
were two men in the room.
You also use a plural verb before phrases
such as `a number (of)', `a lot (of)', and `a few (of)'.
There
were a lot of people camped there.
There
are only a few left.
4 When the noun group after the verb is
singular or uncountable, you use a singular verb.
There
is one point we must add here.
There
isn't enough room in here.
You also use a singular verb when you are
mentioning more than one person or thing and the first noun after the verb is
singular or uncountable.
There
was a man and a woman.
There
was a sofa and two chairs.
5 You can also use `there' with a modal,
followed by `be' or `have been'.
There
could be a problem.
There
should be a change in government.
There
can't have been anybody outside.
There
must have been some mistake.
6 In spoken and informal written English,
short forms of `be' or a modal are normally used after `there'.
There's
no danger.
There'll
always be a future for music.
I
knew there'd be trouble.
There's
been quite a lot of research into it.
I
didn't even know there'd been a murder.
7 You can also use `there' with `appear' or
`seem', followed by `to be' or `to have been'.
There
appears to be a vast amount of confusion on this point.
There
don't seem to be many people on campus.
There
seems to have been some carelessness.
Unit 19 Demonstrative pronouns
Main points
* You use the demonstrative pronouns
`this', `that', `these', and `those' when you are pointing to physical objects
or identifying people.
* You use `one' or `ones' instead of a noun
that has been mentioned or is known.
1 You use the demonstrative pronouns `this',
`that', `these', and `those' when you are pointing to physical objects. `This'
and `these' refer to things near you, `that' and `those' refer to things
farther away.
This
is a list of rules.
`I
brought you these'. Adam held out a bag of grapes.
That
looks interesting.
Those
are mine.
You can also use `this', `that', `these',
and `those' as determiners in front of nouns.
See Unit 23.
This
book was a present from my mother.
When
did you buy that hat?
2 You use `this', `that', `these', and
`those' when you are identifying or introducing people, or asking who they are.
Who's
this?
These
are my children, Susan and Paul.
Was
that Patrick on the phone?
3
You use `this', `that', `these', and
`those' to refer back to things that have already been mentioned.
That
was an interesting word you used just now.
More
money is being pumped into the education system, and we assume this will
continue.
`Let's
go to the cinema.' - `That's a good idea.'
These
are not easy questions to answer.
You also use `this' and `these' to refer
forward to things you are going to mention.
This
is what I want to say: it wasn't my idea.
These
are the topics we will be looking at next week: how the accident happened,
whether it could have been avoided, and who was to blame.
This
is the important point: you must never see her again.
4 You use `one' or `ones' instead of a noun
that has already been mentioned or is known in the situation, usually when you
are adding information or contrasting two things of the same kind.
My
car is the blue one.
Don't
you have one with buttons instead of a zip?
Are
the new curtains longer than the old ones?
You can use `which one' or `which ones' in
questions.
Which
one do you prefer?
Which
ones were damaged?
You can say `this one', `that one', `these
ones', and `those ones'.
I
like this one better.
We'll
have those ones, thank you.
You can use `each one' or `one each', but
note that there is a difference in meaning. In the following examples, `each
one' means `each brother' but `one each' means `one for each child'.
I've
got three brothers and each one lives in a different country.
I
bought the children one each.
5 In formal English, people sometimes use
`one' to refer to people in general.
One
has to think of the practical side of things.
One
never knows what to say in such situations.
6 There are several other types of pronoun,
which are dealt with in other units.
See Unit 22 for information on possessive
pronouns.
See Unit 6 for information on `who',
`whom', `whose', `which', and `what' as interrogative pronouns.
See Units 92 and 93 for information on
`that', `which', `who', `whom', and `whose' as relative pronouns.
Most determiners, except `the', `a', `an',
`every', `no', and the possessives, are also pronouns.
See Units 27 to 30.
Unit 20 Reflexive pronouns
Main points
* Reflexive pronouns can be direct or
indirect objects.
* Most transitive verbs can take a
reflexive pronoun as object.
* Reflexive pronouns can be the object of a
preposition.
* Reflexive pronouns can emphasize a noun
or pronoun.
1 The reflexive pronouns are:
singular:myself
yourself himself herself itself
plural:ourselves
yourselves themselves
Note that, unlike `you' and `your', there
are two forms for the second person: `yourself' in the singular and
`yourselves' in the plural.
2 You use reflexive pronouns as the direct or
indirect object of the verb when you want to say that the object is the same
person or thing as the subject of the verb in the same clause.
For example, `John taught himself' means
that John did the teaching and was also the person who was taught, and `Ann
poured herself a drink' means that Ann did the pouring and was also the person
that the drink was poured for.
She
stretched herself out on the sofa.
The
men formed themselves into a line.
He
should give himself more time.
Note that although the subject `you' is
omitted in imperatives, you can still use `yourself' or `yourselves'.
Here's
the money, go and buy yourself an ice cream.
3 Most transitive verbs can take a reflexive
pronoun.
I
blame myself for not paying attention.
He
introduced himself to me.
WARNING: Verbs which describe actions that
people normally do to themselves do not take reflexive pronouns in English,
although they do in some other languages.
I
usually shave before breakfast.
She
washed very quickly and rushed downstairs.
See Unit 53 for more information.
4 You use a reflexive pronoun as the object
of a preposition when the object of the preposition refers to the same person
or thing as the subject of the verb in the same clause.
I
was thoroughly ashamed of myself.
They
are making fools of themselves.
Tell
me about yourself.
Note that you use personal pronouns, not
reflexive pronouns, when referring to places and after `with' meaning
`accompanied by'.
You
should have your notes in front of you.
He
would have to bring Judy with him.
5 You use reflexive pronouns after nouns or
pronouns to emphasize the person or thing that you are referring to.
The
town itself was so small that it didn't have a bank.
I
myself have never read the book.
6 You use a reflexive pronoun at the end of a
clause to emphasize that someone did something without any help from anyone
else.
She
had printed the card herself.
I'll
take it down to the police station myself.
Did
you make these yourself?
7 You use reflexive pronouns with `by' to
say:
* that someone does something without any
help from other people
...when
babies start eating their meals by themselves.
She
was certain she could manage by herself.
* that someone is alone
He
went off to sit by himself.
I
was there for about six months by myself.
You can also use `on my own', `on your
own', and so on, to say that someone is alone or does something without any
help.
We
were in the park on our own.
They
managed to reach the village on their own.
You can use `all' for emphasis.
Did
you put those shelves up all by yourself?
We
can't solve this problem all on our own.
WARNING: `One another' and `each other' are
not reflexive pronouns.
See Unit 54 for more information on `one
another' and `each other'.
Unit 21 Indefinite pronouns
Main points
* Indefinite pronouns refer to people or
things without saying exactly who or what they are.
* When an indefinite pronoun is the
subject, it always takes a singular verb.
* You often use a plural pronoun to refer
back to an indefinite pronoun.
1 The indefinite pronouns are:
anybody,
everybody, nobody, somebody, anyone, everyone, no one, someone, anything,
everything, nothing, something
Note that `no one' is written as two words,
or sometimes with a hyphen: `no-one'.
2 You use indefinite pronouns when you want
to refer to people or things without saying exactly who or what they are. The
pronouns ending in `-body' and `-one' refer to people, and those ending in
`-thing' refer to things.
I
was there for over an hour before anybody came.
It
had to be someone with a car.
Jane
said nothing for a moment.
3 When an indefinite pronoun is the subject,
it always takes a singular verb, even
when it refers to more than one person or thing.
Everyone
knows that.
Everything
was fine.
Is
anybody there?
When you refer back to indefinite pronouns,
you use plural pronouns or possessives, and a plural verb.
Ask
anyone. They 'll tell you.
Has
everyone eaten as much as they want?
You
can't tell somebody why they've failed.
WARNING: Some speakers prefer to use
singular pronouns. They prefer to say `You can't tell somebody why he or she
has failed'.
4 You can add apostrophe s ('s) to indefinite
pronouns that refer to people.
She
was given a room in someone's studio.
That
was nobody's business but mine.
WARNING: You do not usually add apostrophe
s ('s) to indefinite pronouns that refer to things. You do not say `something's
value', you say `the value of something'.
5 You use indefinite pronouns beginning with
`some-' in:
* affirmative clauses
Somebody
shouted.
I
want to introduce you to someone.
* questions expecting the answer `yes'
Would
you like something to drink?
Can
you get someone to do it?
6 You use indefinite pronouns beginning with
`any-':
* as the subject or object in statements
Anyone
knows that you need a licence.
You
still haven't told me anything.
You do not use them as the subject of a
negative statement. You do not say `Anybody can't come in'.
* in both affirmative and negative
questions
Does
anybody agree with me?
Won't
anyone help me?
7 If you use an indefinite pronoun beginning
with `no-', you must not use another negative word in the same clause. You do
not say `There wasn't nothing'.
There
was nothing you could do.
Nobody
left, nobody went away.
8 You use the indefinite adverbs `anywhere',
`everywhere', `nowhere', and `somewhere' to talk about places in a general way.
`Nowhere' makes a clause negative.
I
thought I'd seen you somewhere.
No-one
can find Howard or Barbara anywhere.
There
was nowhere to hide.
9 You can use `else' after indefinite
pronouns and adverbs to refer to people, things, or places other than those
that have been mentioned.
Everyone
else is downstairs.
I
don't like it here. Let's go somewhere else.
Unit 22 Possession
Main points
* Possessives and possessive pronouns are
used to say that one person or thing belongs to another or is connected with
another.
* You use apostrophe s ('s) to say who
something belongs to.
* You use phrases with `of' to say that one
person or thing belongs to another or is connected with another.
1 You use possessives to say that a person or
thing belongs to another person or thing or is connected with them. The
possessives are sometimes called `possessive adjectives'.
myyourhisheritsourtheir
Note that `your' is both singular and
plural.
I'd
been waiting a long time to park my car.
They
took off their shoes.
WARNING: The possessive `its' is not
spelled with an apostrophe. The form `it's' with an apostrophe is the short
form for `it is' or `it has'.
2 You put numbers and adjectives after the
possessive and in front of the noun.
Their
two small children were playing outside.
She
got a bicycle on her sixth birthday.
3 You use a possessive pronoun when you want
to refer to a person or thing and to say who that person or thing belongs to or
is connected with. The possessive pronouns are:
mineyourshishersourstheirs
Note that `yours' is both singular and
plural.
Is
that coffee yours or mine ?
It
was his fault, not theirs.
WARNING: There is no possessive pronoun
`its'.
4 You can also say who or what something
belongs to or is connected with by using a noun with apostrophe s ('s). For
example, if John owns a motorbike, you can refer to it as `John's motorbike'.
Sylvia
put her hand on John's arm.
I
like the car's design.
You add apostrophe s ('s) to singular nouns
and irregular plural nouns, usually referring to people rather than things.
I
wore a pair of my sister's boots.
Children's
birthday parties can be boring.
With plural nouns ending in `-s' you only
add the apostrophe (').
It
is not his parents' problem.
You add apostrophe s ('s) to people's
names, even when they end in `-s'.
Could
you give me Charles's address?
Note that when you use two or more names
linked by `and', you put the apostrophe s ('s) after the last name.
They
have bought Sue and Tim's car.
5 When you want to refer to someone's home,
or to some common shops and places of work, you can use apostrophe s ('s) after
a name or noun on its own.
He's
round at David's.
He
bought it at the chemist's.
She
must go to the doctor's.
6 You can also use apostrophe s ('s) with
some expressions of time to identify something, or to say how much time is
involved.
Did
you see the cartoon in yesterday's newspaper?
They
have four weeks' holiday per year.
7 You can use a prepositional phrase
beginning with `of' to say that one person or thing belongs to or is connected
with another.
She
is the mother of the boy who lives next door.
Ellen
aimlessly turned the pages of her magazine.
After `of' you can use a possessive
pronoun, or a noun or name with apostrophe s ('s).
He
was an old friend of mine.
That
word was a favourite of your father's.
She's
a friend of Stephen's.
8 You can add `own' after a possessive, or a
noun or name with apostrophe s ('s), for emphasis.
My
own view is that there are no serious problems.
The
professor's own answer may be unacceptable.
Unit 23 Determiners
Main points
* Determiners are used at the beginning of
noun groups.
* You use specific determiners when people
know exactly which things or people you are talking about.
* You use general determiners to talk about
people or things without saying exactly who or what they are.
1 When you use a determiner, you put it at
the beginning of a noun group, in front of numbers or adjectives.
I
met the two Swedish girls in London.
Our
main bedroom is through there.
Have
you got another red card?
Several
young boys were waiting.
2 When the people or things that you are
talking about have already been mentioned, or the people you are talking to
know exactly which ones you mean, you use a specific determiner.
The
man began to run towards the boy.
Young
people don't like these operas.
Her
face was very red.
The specific determiners are:
the
definite article:the
demonstratives:this
that these those
possessives:my
your his her its our their
Note that `your' is used both for the
singular and plural possessive.
See Unit 19 for `this', `that', `these',
and `those' as pronouns.
3 When you are mentioning people or things
for the first time, or talking about them generally without saying exactly
which ones you mean, you use a general determiner.
There
was a man in the lift.
We
went to an art exhibition.
You
can stop at any time you like.
There
were several reasons for this.
The general determiners are:
a,
all, an, another, any, both, each, either, enough, every, few, fewer, less,
little, many, more, most, much, neither, no, other, several, some
4 Each general determiner is used with
particular types of noun, such as:
* singular count nouns
a,
an, another, any, each, either, every, neither, no
I
got a postcard from Susan.
Any
big tin container will do.
He
opened another shop .
* plural count nouns
allenoughmanynosome
anyfewmoreother
bothfewermostseveral
There
were few doctors available.
He
spoke many different languages.
Several
projects were postponed.
* uncount nouns
all,
any, enough, less, little, more, most, much, no, some
There
was little applause.
We
need more information
He
did not speak much English.
WARNING: The following general determiners
can never be used with uncount nouns.
a,
an, another, both, each, either, every, few, many, neither, several
5 Most of the determiners are also pronouns,
except `the', `a', `an', `every', `no' and the possessives.
I
saw several in the woods last night.
Have
you got any that I could borrow?
There
is enough for all of us.
You use `one' as a pronoun instead of `a'
or `an', `none' instead of `no', and `each' instead of `every'.
Have
you got one?
There
are none left.
Each
has a separate box and number.
Unit 24 Main uses of `the'
Main points
* You can use `the' in front of any noun.
* You use `the' when the person you are
talking to knows which person or thing you mean.
* You use `the' when you are referring back
to someone or something.
* You use `the' when you are specifying
which person or thing you are talking about.
* You use `the' when you are referring to
something that is unique.
* You use `the' when you want to use one
thing as an example to say something about all things of the same type.
1 `The' is called the definite article, and
is the commonest determiner. You use `the' when the person you are talking to
knows which person or thing you mean. You can use `the' in front of any noun,
whether it is a singular count noun, an uncount noun, or a plural count noun.
She
dropped the can.
I
remembered the fun I had with them.
The
girls were not at home.
2 You use `the' with a noun when you are
referring back to someone or something that has already been mentioned.
I
called for a waiter... ...The waiter with a moustache came.
I
have bought a house in Wales... ...The house is in an agricultural area.
3 You use `the' with a noun and a qualifier,
such as a prepositional phrase or a relative clause, when you are specifying
which person or thing you are talking about.
I've
no idea about the geography of Scotland.
The
book that I recommended now costs over three pounds.
4 You use `the' with a noun when you are
referring to something of which there is only one in the world.
They
all sat in the sun.
We
have landed men on the moon.
The
sky was a brilliant blue.
You also use `the' when you are referring
to something of which there is only one in a particular place.
Mrs
Robertson heard that the church had been bombed.
He
decided to put some words on the blackboard.
5 You can use `the' with a singular count noun
when you want to make a general statement about all things of that type. For
example, if you say `The whale is the largest mammal in the world', you mean
all whales, not one particular whale.
The
computer allows us to deal with a lot of data very quickly.
My
father's favourite flower is the rose.
6 You can use `the' with a singular count
noun when you are referring to a system or service. For example, you can use
`the phone' to refer to a telephone system and `the bus' to refer to a bus
service.
I
don't like using the phone.
How
long does it take on the train?
7 You can use `the' with the name of a
musical instrument when you are talking about someone's ability to play the
instrument.
`You
play the guitar, I see,' said Simon.
Geoff
plays the piano very well.
Unit 25 Other uses of `the'
Main points
* You do not normally use `the' with proper
nouns referring to people. You do use `the' with many proper nouns referring to
geographical places.
* You use `the' with some adjectives to
talk about groups of people.
1 You do not normally use `the' with proper
nouns that are people's names. However, if you are talking about a family, you
can say `the Browns'.
You use `the' with some titles, such as `the
Queen of England', and with the names of some organizations, buildings,
newspapers, and works of art.
...the
United Nations... ...the Taj Mahal...
...the
Times... ...the Mona Lisa.
2 You do use `the' with some proper nouns
referring to geographical places.
...the
Bay of Biscay... ...the Suez Canal.
...the
Arabian Gulf... ...the Pacific Ocean.
You use `the' with countries whose names
include words such as `kingdom', `republic', `states', or `union'.
...the
United Kingdom... ...the Soviet Union.
You use `the' with countries that have
plural nouns as their names.
...the
Netherlands... ...the Philippines.
Note that you do not use `the' with
countries that have singular nouns as their names, such as `China', `Italy', or
`Turkey'.
You use `the' with names of mountain ranges
and groups of islands.
...the
Alps... ...the Himalayas.
...the
Bahamas... ...the Canaries.
Note that you do not use `the' with the
names of individual mountains such as `Everest' or `Etna', or the names of
individual islands such as `Sicily', `Minorca', or `Bali'.
You use `the' with regions of the world, or
regions of a country that include `north', `south', `east', or `west'.
...the
Middle East... ...the Far East.
...the
north of England... ...the west of Ireland.
Note that there are some exceptions.
...North
America... ...South-East Asia.
You do not use `the' with `northern',
`southern', `eastern', or `western' and a singular name.
...northern
England... ...western Africa.
You use `the' with the names of areas of
water such as seas, oceans, rivers, canals, gulfs, and straits.
...the
Mediterranean Sea... ...the Atlantic Ocean.
...the
river Ganges... ...the Panama Canal.
...the
Gulf of Mexico... ...the straits of Gibraltar.
Note that you do not use `the' with lakes.
...Lake
Geneva... ...Lake Superior.
Note that you do not use `the' with
continents, cities, streets, or addresses.
...Asia...
...Tokyo.
...Oxford
Street... ...15 Park Street.
3 You use `the' with adjectives such as
`rich', `poor', `young', `old', and `unemployed' to talk about a general group
of people. You do not need a noun.
Only
the rich could afford his firm's products.
They
were discussing the problem of the unemployed.
When you use `the' with an adjective as the
subject of a verb, you use a plural verb.
In
the cities the poor are as badly off as they were in the villages.
4 You use `the' with some nationality
adjectives to talk about the people who live in a country.
They
will be increasingly dependent on the support of the French.
The
Spanish claimed that the money had not been paid.
With other nationalities, you use a plural
noun.
...Germans...
...the Americans.
When you use `the' with a nationality
adjective as the subject of a verb, you use a plural verb.
The
British are worried.
5 You use `the' with superlatives.
He
was the cleverest man I ever knew.
He
was the youngest.
His
shoulders hurt the worst.
It
was the most exciting summer of their lives.
Unit 26 `A' and `an'
Main points
* You only use `a' or `an' with singular
count nouns.
* You use `a' or `an' to talk about a
person or thing for the first time.
1 You only use `a' or `an' with singular
count nouns. `A' and `an' are called the indefinite article.
I
got a postcard from Susan.
He
was eating an apple.
Remember that you use `a' in front of a
word that begins with a consonant sound even if the first letter is a vowel,
for example `a piece, a university, a European language'. You use `an' in front
of a word that begins with a vowel sound even if the first letter is a
consonant, for example `an exercise, an idea, an honest man'.
2 You use `a' or `an' when you are talking
about a person or thing for the first time.
She
picked up a book.
After
weeks of looking, we eventually bought a house.
A
colleague and I got some money to do
research on rats.
Note that the second time you refer to the
same person or thing, you use `the'.
She
picked up a book... ...The book was lying on the table.
After
weeks of looking, we bought a house... ...The house was in a village.
3 After the verb `be' or another link verb,
you can use `a' or `an' with an adjective and a noun to give more information
about someone or something.
His
brother was a sensitive child.
He
seemed a worried man.
It
was a really beautiful house.
You can also use `a' or `an' with a noun
followed by a qualifier, such as a prepositional phrase or a relative clause,
when you want to give more information about someone or something.
The
information was contained in an article on biology.
I
chose a picture that reminded me of my own country.
4 You use `a' or `an' after the verb `be' or
another link verb when you are saying what someone is or what job they have.
He
became a school teacher.
She
is a model and an artist.
5 You use `a' or `an' to mean `one' with some
numbers. You can use `a' or `an' with nouns that refer to whole numbers,
fractions, money, weights, or measures.
a
hundred, a thousand, a quarter, a half, a pound, a dollar, a kilo, a litre
6 You do not use `a' or `an' with uncount
nouns or plural count nouns. You do not need to use a determiner at all with
plural count nouns, but you can use the determiners `any', `a few', `many',
`several', or `some'.
I
love dogs.
Do
you have any dogs?
Many
adults don't listen to children.
I
have some children like that in my class.
Note that if you do not use a determiner
with a plural count noun, you are often making a general statement about people
or things of that type. For example, if you say
`I love dogs', you mean all dogs. However, if you say `There are eggs in
the kitchen', you mean there are some eggs. If you do use a determiner, you
mean a number of people or things but not all of them, without saying exactly
how many.
I
have some friends coming for dinner.
He
has bought some plants for the house.
I
have some important things to tell them.
Unit 27 All, most, no, none
Main points
* You use `all' with plural count nouns and
uncount nouns. You use `all' to talk about every person or thing in the world,
or in the group you are talking about.
* You use `most' with plural count nouns
and uncount nouns. You use `most' to talk about nearly all of a number of
people or things, or nearly all of a
quantity of something.
* You use `no' with singular and plural
count nouns and uncount nouns. You use `no' to say that something does not
exist or is not present.
1 You use `all' with plural count nouns and
uncount nouns to talk about every person or thing in the world or in the group
that you are talking about.
All
children should complete the primary course.
All
important decisions were taken by the government.
He
soon lost all hope of becoming a rock star.
All
luggage will be searched.
2 You use `most' with plural count nouns and
uncount nouns to talk about nearly all of a number of people or things, or
nearly all of a quantity of something.
The
method was suitable for most purposes.
Most
good drivers stop at zebra crossings.
Most
milk is still delivered to people's houses.
He
ignored most advice, and did what he thought best.
3 You use `no' with singular count nouns,
plural count nouns, and uncount nouns to say that something does not exist or
is not present.
There
was no chair for me to sit on.
They
had no immediate plans to change house.
No
money was available for the operation.
Note that if there is another word in the
clause that makes it negative, you use `any', not `no'.
It
hasn't made any difference.
He
will never do any work for me again.
4 `All' and `most' are also pronouns, so you
can say `all of' and `most of'. `No' is not a pronoun, so you must say `none
of'.
He
spent all of the money on a new car.
Most
of my friends live in London.
None
of those farmers had ever driven a tractor.
Note that you use `all of', `most of', and
`none of' with an object pronoun.
All
of us were sleeping.
I
had seen most of them before.
None
of them came to the party.
Note that if the clause is already
negative, you use `any of', not `none of'.
I
hadn't eaten any of the biscuits.
When `none of' is followed by a plural
count noun or pronoun, the verb is usually plural, but can be singular.
None
of us are the same.
None
of them has lasted very long.
5 You can use `all the' with a plural count
noun or an uncount noun. There is no difference in meaning between `all the'
and `all of the'.
All
the girls think it's great.
All
the best jokes came at the end of the programme.
Thank
you for all the help you gave me.
WARNING: You cannot say `most the' or `none
the'. You must say `most of the' or `none of the'.
6 You can use `all' after a noun or pronoun
to emphasize that the noun or pronoun refers to everyone or everything that has
been mentioned or is involved. Note that you can use `all' to emphasize the subject
or the object.
The
band all live together in the same house.
I
enjoyed it all.
Unit 28 Both, either, neither
Main points
* You use `both', `either', and `neither'
to talk about two people or things that have been mentioned or are known to the
hearer.
* You use `both' with plural nouns, and
`either' and `neither' with singular nouns.
* You use `both of', `either of', and
`neither of' with plural nouns or pronouns.
1 You use `both', `either', and `neither'
when you are saying something about two people or things that have been
mentioned, or are known to the person you are talking to.
There
were excellent performances from both actresses.
Denis
held his cocoa in both hands.
No
argument could move either man from this decision.
Neither
report mentioned the Americans.
2 You use `both' when you think of the two
people or things as a group. You use `both' with a plural noun.
Both
children were happy with their presents.
Both
policies make good sense.
3 You use `either' when you think of the two
people or things as individuals. You use `either' with a singular noun.
Either
way is acceptable.
She
could not see either man.
4 You use `neither' when you are thinking of
the two people or things as individuals and you are making a negative statement
about them. You use `neither' with a singular noun.
In
reality, neither party was enthusiastic.
Neither
man knew what he was doing.
5 You can use `both' with a specific determiner
such as `the', `these', or `my'.
Both
the young men agreed to come.
Both
these books have been recommended to us.
Both
her parents were dead.
WARNING: You cannot use `either' or
`neither' with a specific determiner.
6 You can use `both of', `either of', or
`neither of' with a plural noun or pronoun. Note that when `both of', `either
of', and `neither of' are followed by a noun rather than a pronoun, you must
use a specific determiner such as `the', `these', or `her' before the noun.
Both
of these restaurants are excellent.
Either
of them could have done the job.
Neither
of our boys was involved.
Note that `neither of' is normally used
with a singular verb but it can be used with a plural verb.
Neither
of us was having any luck.
Neither
of the children were there.
7 Remember that you can also use `both',
`either', and `neither' as conjunctions. You use `both...and' to give two
alternatives and say that each of them is possible or true.
I
am looking for opportunities both in this country and abroad.
Both
I and my wife were surprised to see you there.
You use `either...or' to give two
alternatives and say that only one of them is possible or true.
You
can have either fruit or ice cream.
I
was expecting you either today or
tomorrow.
You
either love him or hate him.
You also use `neither...nor' to give two
alternatives and say that each of them is not possible or is not true.
Neither
Margaret nor John was there.
He
did it neither quickly nor well.
Unit 29 Quantity 1
Main points
* You use `much' and `little' with uncount
nouns to talk about a quantity of something.
* You use `many' and `few' with plural
nouns to talk about a number of people or things.
* You use `much' in negative sentences and
questions, and `a lot of' or `plenty of' rather than `much' in affirmative
sentences.
* You use `more' and `less' with uncount
nouns, and `more' and `fewer' with plural count nouns.
1 You use `much' to talk about a large
quantity of something, and `little' to talk about a small quantity of
something. You only use `much' and `little' with uncount nouns.
I
haven't got much time.
We've
made little progress.
2 You use `many' to talk about a large number
of people or things, and `few' to talk about a small number of people or
things. You can only use `many' and `few' with plural count nouns.
He
wrote many novels.
There
were few visitors to our house.
3 You normally use `much' in negative
sentences and questions.
He
did not speak much English.
Why
haven't I given much attention to this problem?
In affirmative sentences you do not use
`much', you use `a lot of', `lots of', or `plenty of' instead. You can use them
with both uncount nouns and plural nouns.
He
demanded a lot of attention.
I
make a lot of mistakes.
They
spent lots of time on the project.
He
remembered a large room with lots of windows.
I've
got plenty of money.
There
are always plenty of jobs to be done.
Note that you can use `so much' and `too
much' in affirmative sentences.
She
spends so much time here.
There
is too much chance of error.
4 You use `so much' to emphasize that a large
quantity of something is involved.
I
have so much work to do.
They
have so much money and we have so little.
You use `too much' and `too many' to say
that the quantity of something, or the number of people or things, is larger
than is reasonable or necessary.
He
has too much work.
Too
many people still smoke.
You use `very many' to emphasize that a
large number of people or things are involved.
Very
many old people live alone.
Note that `very much' is used with nouns
and verbs.
There
isn't very much time.
I
liked it very much.
5 You use `few' and `little' to emphasize
that only a small quantity of something or a small number of people or things
are involved. They can be used with `very' for greater emphasis.
The
town has few monuments.
I
have little time for anything but work.
Very
few cars had reversing lights.
I
had very little money left.
Note that `a few' and `a little' just
indicate that a quantity or number is small.
He
spread a little honey on a slice of bread.
I
usually do a few jobs for him in the house.
6 You use `more' with uncount nouns and
plural count nouns to refer to a quantity of something or a number of people or
things that is greater than another quantity or number.
His
visit might do more harm than good.
He
does more hours than I do.
You use `less' with uncount nouns to refer
to an amount of something that is smaller than another amount.
The
poor have less access to education.
This
machinery uses less energy.
You use `fewer', or `less' in informal
English, with plural nouns to refer to a number of people or things that is
smaller than another number.
There
are fewer trees here.
They
have sold less computers this year.
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