Unit 30 Quantity 2
Main points
* You use `some' to talk about a quantity
or number without being precise.
* You use `any' to talk about a quantity or
number that may or may not exist.
* You use `another', or `another' and a
number, to talk about additional people or things.
* You use `each' and `every' to talk about
all the members of a group of people or things.
1 You use `some' with uncount nouns and
plural nouns to talk about a quantity of something or a number of people or
things without being precise.
I
have left some food for you in the fridge.
Some
trains are running late.
You normally use `some' in affirmative
sentences.
There's
some chocolate cake over there.
I
had some good ideas.
You use `some' in questions when you expect
the answer to be `yes', for example in offers or requests.
Would
you like some coffee?
Could
you give me some examples?
You can use `some' with a singular noun
when you do not know which person or thing is involved, or you think it does
not matter.
Some
man phoned, but didn't leave his number.
Is
there some problem?
2 You use `any' in front of plural and
uncount nouns to talk about a quantity of something that may or may not exist.
You normally use `any' in questions and negative sentences.
Are
there any jobs men can do but women can't?
It
hasn't made any difference.
You use `any' with a singular noun to
emphasize that it does not matter which person or thing is involved.
Any
container will do.
You can use `no' with an affirmative verb
instead of `not any'.
There
weren't any tomatoes left.
There
were no tomatoes left.
You can also use `not' and `any', or `no',
with a comparative.
Her
house wasn't any better than ours.
Her
house was no better than ours.
3 You use `another' with singular nouns to
talk about an additional person or thing.
Could
I have another cup of coffee?
He
opened another shop last month.
You can also use `another' with a number
and a plural noun to talk about more people or things.
Another
four years passed before we met again.
I've
got another three books to read.
You use `other' with plural nouns and `the
other' with singular or plural nouns.
I've
got other things to think about.
The
other man has gone.
The
other European countries have a beaten us.
4 You use `each' or `every' with a singular
noun to talk about all the members of a group of people or things. You use
`each' when you are thinking about the members as individuals, and `every' when
you are making a general statement about all of them.
Each
county is subdivided into several districts.
Each
applicant has five choices.
Every
child would have milk every day.
She
spoke to every person at that party.
You can modify `every' but not `each'.
He
spoke to them nearly every day.
We
went out almost every evening.
5 You can use `some of', `any of', or `each
of', and a noun group to talk about a number of people or things in a group of
people or things.
Some
of the information has already been analysed.
It
was more expensive than any of the other magazines.
He
gave each of us advice about our present goals.
You can use `each of' and a plural noun
group but `every' must be followed by `one of'.
Each
of the drawings is different.
Every
one of them is given a financial target.
Note that you can also use `each' with `one
of'.
This
view of poverty influences each one of us.
Unit 31 Position of adjectives
Main points
* There are two main positions for
adjectives: in front of a noun, or as the complement of a link verb.
* Most adjectives can be used in either of
these positions, but some adjectives can only be used in one.
1 Most adjectives can be used in a noun
group, after determiners and numbers if there are any, in front of the noun.
He
had a beautiful smile.
She
bought a loaf of white bread.
There
was no clear evidence.
2 Most adjectives can also be used after a
link verb such as `be', `become', or `feel'.
I'm
cold.
I
felt angry.
Nobody
seemed amused.
3 Some adjectives are normally used only
after a link verb.
afraid,
alive, alone, asleep, aware, content, due, glad, ill, ready, sorry, sure,
unable, well
For example, you can say `She was glad',
but you do not talk about `a glad woman'.
I
wanted to be alone.
We
were getting ready for bed.
I'm
not quite sure.
He
didn't know whether to feel glad or sorry.
4 Some adjectives are normally used only in
front of a noun.
easternatomicindooroccasional
northerncountlessintroductoryoutdoor
southerndigitalmaximum
westernexistingneighbouring
For example, you talk about `an atomic
bomb', but you do not say `The bomb was atomic'.
He
sent countless letters to the newspapers.
This
book includes a good introductory chapter on forests.
5 When you use an adjective to emphasize a
strong feeling or opinion, it always comes in front of a noun.
absolute,
complete, entire, outright, perfect, positive, pure, real, total, true, utter
Some
of it was absolute rubbish.
He
made me feel like a complete idiot.
6 Some adjectives that describe size or age
can come after a noun group consisting of a number or determiner and a noun
that indicates the unit of measurement.
deeplongtallwide
higholdthick
He
was about six feet tall.
The
water was several metres deep.
The
baby is nine months old.
Note that you do not say `two pounds
heavy', you say `two pounds in weight'.
7 A few adjectives are used alone after a
noun.
designate,
elect, galore, incarnate
She
was now the president elect.
There
are empty houses galore.
8 A few adjectives have a different meaning
depending on whether they come in front of or after a noun.
concerned,
involved, present, proper, responsible
For example, `the concerned mother' means a
mother who is worried, but `the mother concerned' means the mother who has been
mentioned.
It's
one of those incredibly involved stories.
The
people involved are all doctors.
I'm
worried about the present situation.
Of
the 18 people present, I knew only one.
Her
parents were trying to act in a responsible manner.
We
do not know the person responsible for his death.
Unit 32 Order of adjectives
Main points
* You put opinion adjectives in front of
descriptive adjectives.
* You put general opinion adjectives in
front of specific opinion adjectives.
* You can sometimes vary the order of
adjectives.
* If you use two or more descriptive
adjectives, you put them in a particular order.
* If you use a noun in front of another
noun, you put any adjectives in front of the first noun.
1 You often want to add more information to a
noun than you can with one adjective. In theory, you can use the adjectives in
any order, depending on the quality you want to emphasize. In practice,
however, there is a normal order.
When you use two or more adjectives in
front of a noun, you usually put an adjective that expresses your opinion in
front of an adjective that just describes something.
You
live in a nice big house.
He
is a naughty little boy.
She
was wearing a beautiful pink suit.
2 When you use more than one adjective to
express your opinion, an adjective with a more general meaning such as `good',
`bad', `nice', or `lovely' usually comes before an adjective with a more
specific meaning such as `comfortable', `clean', or `dirty'.
I
sat in a lovely comfortable armchair in the corner.
He
put on a nice clean shirt.
3 You can use adjectives to describe various
qualities of people or things. For example, you might want to indicate their
size, their shape, or the country they come from.
Descriptive adjectives belong to six main
types, but you are unlikely ever to use all six types in the same noun group.
If you did, you would normally put them in the following order:
sizeageshapecolournationalitymaterial
This means that if you want to use an `age'
adjective and a `nationality' adjective, you put the `age' adjective first.
We
met some young Chinese girls.
Similarly, a `shape' adjective normally
comes before a `colour' adjective.
He
had round black eyes.
Other combinations of adjectives follow the
same order. Note that `material' means any substance, not only cloth.
There
was a large round wooden table in the room.
The
man was carrying a small black plastic bag.
4 You usually put comparative and superlative
adjectives in front of other adjectives.
Some
of the better English actors have gone to live in Hollywood.
These
are the highest monthly figures on record.
5 When you use a noun in front of another
noun, you never put adjectives between them. You put any adjectives in front of
the first noun.
He
works in the French film industry.
He
receives a large weekly cash payment.
6 When you use two adjectives as the
complement of a link verb, you use a conjunction such as `and' to link them.
With three or more adjectives, you link the last two with a conjunction, and put
commas after the others.
The
day was hot and dusty.
The
room was large but square.
The
house was old, damp and smelly.
We
felt hot, tired and thirsty.
Unit 33 Adjective + `to' or `that'
Main points
* Adjectives used after link verbs are
often followed by `to'-infinitive clauses or `that'-clauses.
* Some adjectives are always followed by
`to'-infinitive clauses.
* You often use `to'-infinitive clauses or
`that'-clauses after adjectives to express feelings or opinions.
* You often use `to'-infinitive clauses
after adjectives when the subject is impersonal `it'.
1 After link verbs, you often use adjectives
that describe how someone feels about an action or situation. With some
adjectives, you can add a `to'-infinitive clause or a `that'-clause to say what
the action or situation is.
afraid,
anxious, ashamed, disappointed, frightened, glad, happy, pleased, proud, sad,
surprised, unhappy
If the subject is the same in both clauses,
you usually use a `to'-infinitive clause. If the subject is different, you must
use a `that'-clause.
I
was happy to see them again.
He
was happy that they were coming to the party.
You often use a `to'-infinitive clause when
talking about future time in relation to the main clause.
I
am afraid to go home.
He
was anxious to leave before it got dark.
You often use a `that'-clause when talking
about present or past time in relation to the main clause.
He
was anxious that the passport was missing.
They
were afraid that I might have talked to the police.
2 You often use `sorry' with a `that'-clause.
Note that `that' is often omitted.
I'm
very sorry that I can't join you.
I'm
sorry I'm so late.
3 Some adjectives are not usually used alone,
but have a `to'-infinitive clause after them to say what action or situation
the adjective relates to.
able,
apt, bound, due, inclined, liable, likely, prepared, ready, unlikely,
unwilling, willing
They
were unable to help her.
They
were not likely to forget it.
I
am willing to try.
I'm
prepared to say I was wrong.
4 When you want to express an opinion about
someone or something, you often use an adjective followed by a `to'-infinitive
clause.
difficult,
easy, impossible, possible, right, wrong
She
had been easy to deceive.
The
windows will be almost impossible to open.
Am
Iwrong to stay here?
Note that in the first two examples, the
subject of the main clause is the object of the `to'-infinitive clause. In the
third example, the subject is the same in both clauses.
5 With some adjectives, you use a
`that'-clause to express an opinion about someone or something.
awful,
bad, essential, extraordinary, funny, good, important, interesting, obvious,
sad, true
I
was sad that people had reacted in this way.
It
is extraordinary that we should ever have met!
6 You can also use adjectives with
`to'-infinitive clauses after `it' as the impersonal subject. You use the
preposition `of' or `for' to indicate the person or thing that the adjective
relates to.
It
was easy to find the path.
It
was good of John to help me.
It
was difficult for her to find a job.
See Unit 17 for `it' as impersonal subject.
See Unit 47 for more information about
adjectives followed by `of' or `for'.
Unit 34 `-ing' and `-ed' adjectives
Main points
* Many adjectives ending in `-ing' describe
the effect that something has on someone's feelings.
* Some adjectives ending in `-ing' describe
a process or state that continues over a period of time.
* Many adjectives ending in `-ed' describe
people's feelings.
1 You use many `-ing' adjectives to describe
the effect that something has on your feelings, or on the feelings of people in
general. For example, if you talk about `a surprising number', you mean that
the number surprises you.
alarmingcharmingembarrassingsurprising
amazingcharmingexcitingterrifying
annoyingcharmingfrighteningtiring
astonishingdepressinginterestingworrying
boringdisappointingshockingwelcoming
He
lives in a charming house just outside the town.
She
always has a warm welcoming smile.
Most `-ing' adjectives have a related
transitive verb.
See Unit 51 for information on transitive
verbs.
2 You use some `-ing' adjectives to describe
something that continues over a period of time.
ageingdecreasingexistingliving
boomingdyingincreasingremaining
Britain
is an ageing society.
Increasing
prices are making food very expensive.
These adjectives have related intransitive
verbs.
See Unit 51 for information on intransitive
verbs.
3 Many `-ed' adjectives describe people's
feelings. They have the same form as the past participle of a transitive verb
and have a passive meaning. For example, `a frightened person' is a person who
has been frightened by something.
alarmeddelightedfrightenedsurprised
amuseddepressedinterestedtired
astonisheddisappointedsatisfiedworried
boredexcitedshocked
She
looks alarmed about something.
A
bored student complained to his teacher.
She
had big blue frightened eyes.
Note that the past participles of irregular
verbs do not end in `-ed', but can be used as adjectives. See pages 216-217 for
a list of irregular past participles.
The
bird had a broken wing.
His
coat was dirty and torn.
4 Like other adjectives, `-ing' and `-ed'
adjectives can be:
* used in front of a noun
They
still show amazing loyalty to their parents.
This
is the most terrifying tale ever written.
I
was thanked by the satisfied customer.
The
worried authorities cancelled the match.
* used after link verbs
It's
amazing what they can do.
The
present situation is terrifying.
He
felt satisfied with all the work he had done.
My
husband was worried.
* modified by adverbials such as `quite',
`really', and `very'
The
film was quite boring.
There
is nothing very surprising in this.
She
was quite astonished at his behaviour.
He
was a very disappointed young man.
* used in the comparative and superlative
His
argument was more convincing than mine.
He
became even more depressed after she died.
This
is one of the most boring books I've ever read.
She
was the most interested in going to the cinema.
5 A small number of `-ed' adjectives are
normally only used after link verbs such as `be', `become', or `feel'. They are
related to transitive verbs, and are often followed by a prepositional phrase,
a `to'-infinitive clause, or a `that'-clause.
convincedinterestedpreparedtired
delightedinvolvedscaredtouched
finishedpleasedthrilled
The
Brazilians are pleased with the results.
He
was always prepared to account for his actions.
She
was scared that they would find her.
Unit 35 Comparison: basic forms
Main points
* You add `-er' for the comparative and
`-est' for the superlative of one-syllable adjectives and adverbs.
* You use `-er' and `-est' with some
two-syllable adjectives.
* You use `more' for the comparative and
`most' for the superlative of most two-syllable adjectives, all longer
adjectives, and adverbs ending in `-ly'.
* Some common adjectives and adverbs have
irregular forms.
1 You add `-er' for the comparative form and
`-est' for the superlative form of one-syllable adjectives and adverbs. If they
end in `-e', you add `-r' and `-st'.
cheap*
cheaper* cheapest
safe*
safer* safest
closecoldfasthardlargelightnice
poorquickroughsmallweakwideyoung
They
worked harder.
I've
found a nicer hotel.
If they end in a single vowel and consonant
(except `-w'), double the consonant.
big*
bigger* biggest
fathotsadthinwet
The
day grew hotter.
Henry
was the biggest of them.
2 With
two-syllable adjectives and adverbs ending in a consonant and `-y', you change
the `-y' to `-i' and add `-er' and `-est'.
happy*
happier* happiest
angrybusydirtyeasyfriendly
funnyheavyluckysillytiny
It
couldn't be easier.
That
is the funniest bit of the film.
3 You use `more' for the comparative and
`most' for the superlative of most two-syllable adjectives, all longer
adjectives, and adverbs ending in `-ly'.
careful*
more careful* most careful
beautiful*
more beautiful* most beautiful
seriously*
more seriously* most seriously
Be
more careful next time.
They
are the most beautiful gardens in the world.
It
affected Clive most seriously.
Note that for `early' as an adjective or
adverb, you use `earlier' and `earliest', not `more' and `most'.
4 With some common two-syllable adjectives
and adverbs you can either add `-er' and `-est', or use `more' and `most'.
commongentlelikelypleasantsimple
cruelhandsomenarrowpolitestupid
Note that `clever' and `quiet' only add
`-er' and `-est'.
It
was quieter outside.
He
was the cleverest man I ever knew.
5 You normally use `the' with superlative
adjectives in front of a noun, but you can omit `the' after a link verb.
It
was the happiest day of my life.
I
was happiest when I was on my own.
WARNING: When `most' is used without `the'
in front of adjectives and adverbs, it often means almost the same as `very'.
This
book was most interesting.
I
object most strongly.
6 A few common adjectives and adverbs have
irregular comparative and superlative forms.
good/well*
better* best
bad/badly*
worse* worst
far*
farther/further* farthest/furthest
old*
older/elder* oldest/eldest
She
would ask him when she knew him better.
She
sat near the furthest window.
Note that you use `elder' or `eldest' to
say which brother, sister, or child in a family you mean.
Our
eldest daughter couldn't come.
Unit 36 Comparison: uses
Main points
* Comparative adjectives are used to
compare people or things.
* Superlative adjectives are used to say
that one person or thing has more of a quality than others in a group or others
of that kind.
* Comparative adverbs are used in the same
way as adjectives.
1 You use comparative adjectives to compare
one person or thing with another, or with the same person or thing at another
time. After a comparative adjective, you often use `than'.
She
was much older than me.
I
am happier than I have ever been.
2 You use a superlative to say that one
person or thing has more of a quality than others in a group or others of that
kind.
Tokyo
is Japan's largest city.
He
was the tallest person there.
Buses
are often the cheapest way of travelling.
3 You can use comparative and superlative
adjectives in front of a noun.
I
was a better writer than he was.
He
had more important things to do.
It
was the quickest route from Rome to Naples.
You can also use comparative and
superlative adjectives after link verbs.
My
brother is younger than me.
He
feels more content now.
The
sergeant was the tallest.
This
book was the most interesting.
4 You can use adverbs of degree in front of
comparative adjectives.
a
bit, far, a great/good deal, a little, a lot, much, rather, slightly
This
car's a bit more expensive.
Now
I feel a great deal more confident.
It's
a rather more complicated story than that.
You can also use adverbs of degree such as
`by far', `easily', `much', or `quite' in front of `the' and superlative
adjectives.
It
was by far the worst hospital I had ever seen.
She
was easily the most intelligent person in the class.
Note that you can put `very' between `the'
and a superlative adjective ending in `-est'.
It
was of the very highest quality.
5 When you want to say that one situation
depends on another, you can use `the' and a comparative followed by `the' and
another comparative.
The
smaller it is, the cheaper it is to post.
The
larger the organisation is, the greater the problem of administration becomes.
When you want to say that something
increases or decreases, you can use two comparatives linked by `and'.
It's
getting harder and harder to find a job.
Cars
are becoming more and more expensive.
6 After a superlative adjective, you can use
a prepositional phrase to specify the group you are talking about.
Henry
was the biggest of them.
These
cakes are probably the best in the world.
He
was the most dangerous man in the country.
7 You use the same structures in comparisons
using adverbs as those given for adjectives:
* `than' after comparative adverbs
Prices
have been rising faster than incomes.
* `the' and a comparative adverb followed by
`the' and another comparative adverb
The
quicker we finish, the sooner we will go home.
* two comparative adverbs linked by `and'
He
sounded worse and worse.
He
drove faster and faster till we told him to stop.
Unit 37 Other ways of comparing
Main points
* This includes words like: `as...as', `the
same (as)' and `like'.
* You use `as...as...' to compare people or
things.
* You can also compare people or things by
using `the same (as)'.
* You can also compare people or things by
using a link verb and a phrase beginning with `like'.
1 You use `as...as...' to compare people or
things that are similar in some way.You use `as' and an adjective or adverb,
followed by `as' and a noun group, an adverbial, or a clause.
You're
as bad as your sister.
The
airport was as crowded as ever.
I
am as good as she is.
Let
us examine it as carefully as we can.
2 You can make a negative comparison using
`not as...as...' or `not so...as...'.
The
food wasn't as good as yesterday.
They
are not as clever as they appear to be.
He
is not so old as I thought.
3 You can use the adverbs `almost', `just',
`nearly', or `quite' in front of `as...as...'.
He
was almost as fast as his brother.
Mary
was just as pale as before.
She
was nearly as tall as he was.
In a negative comparison, you can use `not
nearly' or `not quite' before `as...as...'.
This
is not nearly as complicated as it sounds.
The
hotel was not quite as good as they expected.
4 When you want to say that one thing is very
similar to something else, you can use `the same as' followed by a noun group,
an adverbial, or a clause.
Your
bag is the same as mine.
I
said the same as always.
She
looked the same as she did yesterday.
If people or things are very similar or
identical, you can also say that they are `the same'.
Teenage
fashions are the same all over the world.
The
initial stage of learning English is the same for many students.
You can use some adverbs in front of `the
same as' or `the same'.
almostjustmuchroughly
exactlymore
or lessnearlyvirtually
He
did exactly the same as John did.
You
two look almost the same.
You can use `the same' in front of a noun
group, with or without `as' after the noun group.
They
reached almost the same height.
It
was painted the same colour as the wall.
5 You can also compare people or things by
using a link verb such as `be', `feel', `look', or `seem' and a phrase
beginning with `like'.
It
was like a dream.
He
still feels like a child.
He
looked like an actor.
The
houses seemed like mansions.
You can use some adverbs in front of
`like'.
a
bit, a little, exactly, just, least, less, more, most, quite, rather, somewhat,
very
He
looks just like a baby.
Of
all his children, she was the one most like me.
6 If the noun group after `as' or `like' in
any of these structures is a pronoun, you use an object pronoun or possessive
pronoun.
Jane
was as clever as him.
His
car is the same as mine.
7 You can also use `less' and `least' to make
comparisons with the opposite meaning to `more' and `most'.
They
were less fortunate than us.
He
was the least skilled of the workers.
We
see him less frequently than we used to.
Unit 38 Adverbials
Main points
* Adverbials are usually adverbs, adverb
phrases, or prepositional phrases.
* Adverbials of manner, place, and time are
used to say how, where, or when something happens.
*
Adverbials usually come after the verb, or after the object if there is one.
* The usual order of adverbials is manner,
then place, then time.
1 An adverbial is often one word, an adverb.
Sit
there quietly, and listen to this music.
However, an adverbial can also be a group
of words:
* an adverb phrase
He
did not play well enough to win.
* a prepositional phrase
The
children were playing in the park.
* a noun group, usually a time expression
Come
and see me next week.
2 You use an adverbial of manner to describe
the way in which something happens or is done.
They
looked anxiously at each other.
She
listened with great patience as he told his story.
You use an adverbial of place to say where
something happens.
A
plane flew overhead.
No
birds or animals came near the body.
You use an adverbial of time to say when
something happens.
She
will be here soon.
He
was born on 3 April 1925.
3 You normally put adverbials of manner,
place, and time after the main verb.
She
sang beautifully.
The
book was lying on the table.
The
car broke down yesterday.
If the verb has an object, you put the
adverbial after the object.
I
did learn to play a few tunes very badly.
Thomas
made his decision immediately.
He
took the glasses to the kitchen.
If you are using more than one of these
adverbials in a clause, the usual order is manner, then place, then time.
They
were sitting quite happily in the car. (manner, place)
She
spoke very well at the village hall last night. (manner, place, time)
4 You usually put adverbials of frequency,
probability, and duration in front of the main verb.
She
occasionally comes to my house.
You
have very probably heard the news by now.
They
had already given me the money.
A few adverbs of degree also usually come
in front of the main verb.
She
really enjoyed the party.
5 When you want to focus on an adverbial, you
can do this by putting it in a different place in the clause:
* you can put an adverbial at the beginning
of a clause, usually for emphasis
Slowly,
he opened his eyes.
In
September I travelled to California.
Next
to the coffee machine stood a pile of cups.
Note that after adverbials of place, as in
the last example, the verb can come in front of the subject.
* you can sometimes put adverbs and adverb
phrases in front of the main verb for emphasis, but not prepositional phrases
or noun groups
He
deliberately chose it because it was cheap.
I
very much wanted to go with them.
* you can change the order of adverbials of
manner, place, and time when you want to change the emphasis
They
were sitting in the car quite happily. (place, manner)
At
the meeting last night, she spoke very well. (place, time,
manner)
Unit 39 Adverbials of manner
Main points
* Most adverbs of manner are formed by
adding `-ly' to an adjective, but sometimes other spelling changes are needed.
* You cannot form adverbs from adjectives
that end in `-ly'.
* Some adverbs have the same form as
adjectives.
* You do not use adverbs after link verbs,
you use adjectives.
* Adverbials of manner are sometimes
prepositional phrases or noun groups.
1 Adverbs of manner are often formed by adding
`-ly' to an adjective.
Adjectives:bad
beautiful careful quick quiet soft
Adverbs:badly
beautifully carefully quickly quietly softly
2 Adverbs formed in this way usually have a
similar meaning to the adjective.
She
is as clever as she is beautiful.
He
talked so politely and danced so beautifully.
`We
must not talk. We must be quiet,' said Sita.
She
wanted to sit quietly, to relax.
3 There are sometimes changes in spelling
when an adverb is formed from an adjective.
`-le'
changes to `-ly':gentle * gently
`-y'
changes to `-ily':easy * easily
`-ic'
changes to `-ically':automatic * automatically
`-ue'
changes to `-uly':true * truly
`-ll'
changes to `-lly':full * fully
Note that `public' changes to `publicly',
not `publically'.
WARNING: You cannot form adverbs from
adjectives that already end in `-ly'. For example, you cannot say `He smiled at
me friendlily'. You can sometimes use a prepositional phrase instead: `He
smiled at me in a friendly way'.
4 Some adverbs of manner have the same form
as adjectives and have similar meanings, for example `fast', `hard', and
`late'.
I've
always been interested in fast cars.
(adjective)
The
driver was driving too fast.
(adverb)
Note that `hardly' and `lately' are not
adverbs of manner and have different meanings from the adjectives `hard' and
`late'.
It
was a hard decision to make.
I
hardly had any time to talk to her.
The
train was late as usual.
Have
you seen John lately?
5 The adverb of manner related to the
adjective `good' is `well'.
He
is a good dancer.
He
dances well.
Note that `well' can sometimes be an
adjective when it refers to someone's health.
`How
are you?' - `I am very well, thank you.'
6 You do not use adverbs after link verbs
such as `be', `become', `feel', `get', `look', and `seem'. You use an adjective
after these verbs. For example, you do not say `Sue felt happily'. You say `Sue
felt happy'.
See Unit 73 for more information on link
verbs.
7 You do not often use prepositional phrases
or noun groups as adverbials of manner. However, you occasionally need to use
them, for example when there is no adverb form available. The prepositional
phrases and noun groups usually include a noun such as `way', `fashion', or
`manner', or a noun that refers to someone's voice.
She
asked me in such a nice manner that I couldn't refuse.
He
did it the right way.
They
spoke in angry tones.
Prepositional phrases with `like' are also
used as adverbials of manner.
I
slept like a baby.
He
drove like a madman.
Unit 40 Adverbials of time
Main points
* Adverbials of time can be time
expressions such as `last night'.
*
Adverbials of time can be prepositional phrases with `at', `in', or `on'.
* `For' refers to a period of time in the
past, present, or future.
* `Since' refers to a point in past time.
1 You use adverbials of time to say when
something happens. You often use noun groups called time expressions as
adverbials of time.
yesterdaylast
nightnext Saturdaythe day after tomorrow
todaylast
yearnext weekthe other day
tomorrow
Note that you do not use the prepositions `at',
`in', or `on' with time expressions.
One
of my children wrote to me today.
So,
you're coming back next week?
You often use time expressions with verbs
in the present tense to talk about the future.
The
plane leaves tomorrow morning.
They're
coming next week.
2 You can use prepositional phrases as
adverbials of time:
* `at' is used with:
clock
times:at eight o'clock, at three fifteen
religious
festivals:at Christmas, at Easter
mealtimes:at
breakfast, at lunchtimes
specific periods:at
night, at the weekend, at weekends, at half-term
* `in' is used with:
seasons:in
autumn, in the spring
years
and centuries:in 1985,
in the year 2000, in the nineteenth century
months:in
July, in December
parts
of the day:in the morning, in the evenings
Note that you also use `in' to say that
something will happen during or after a period of time in the future.
I
think we'll find out in the next few days.
* `on' is used with:
days:on
Monday, on Tuesday morning, on Sunday evenings
special
days:on Christmas Day, on my birthday, on his wedding anniversary
dates:on
the twentieth of July, on June 21st
3 You use `for' with verbs in any tense to
say how long something continues to happen.
He
is in Italy for a month.
I
remained silent for a long time.
I
will be in London for three months.
WARNING: You do not use `during' to say how
long something continues to happen. You cannot say `I went there during three
weeks'.
4 You use `since' with a verb in the present
perfect or past perfect tense to say when something started to happen.
Marilyn
has lived in Paris since 1984.
I
had eaten nothing since breakfast.
5 You can use many other prepositional
phrases as adverbials of time. You use:
* `during' and `over' for a period of time
in which something happens
I
saw him twice during the holidays.
Will
you stay here over Christmas?
* `from...to/till/until' and
`between...and' for the beginning and end of a period of time
The
building is closed from April to May.
She
worked from four o'clock till ten o'clock.
Can
you take the test between now and June?
* `by' when you mean `not later than'
By
eleven o'clock, Brody was back in his office.
Can
we get this finished by tomorrow?
* `before' and `after'
I
saw him before the match.
She
left the house after ten o'clock.
`Since', `till', `until', `after', and
`before' can also be conjunctions with time clauses.
See Unit 96.
I've
been wearing glasses since I was three.
6 You use the adverb `ago' with the past
simple to say how long before the time of speaking something happened. You
always put `ago' after the period of time.
We
saw him about a month ago.
John's
wife died five years ago.
WARNING: You do not use `ago' with the
present perfect tense. You cannot say `We have gone to Spain two years ago'.
Unit 41 Frequency and probability
Main points
* This includes words like: `always',
`ever', `never', `perhaps', `possibly' and `probably'.
* Adverbials of frequency are used to say
how often something happens.
* Adverbials of probability are used to say
how sure you are about something.
* These adverbials usually come before the
main verb, but they come after `be' as a main verb.
1 You use adverbials of frequency to say how
often something happens.
a
lot, always, ever, frequently, hardly ever, never, normally, occasionally,
often, rarely, sometimes, usually
We
often swam in the sea.
She
never comes to my parties.
2 You use adverbials of probability to say
how sure you are about something.
certainlydefinitelymaybeobviously
perhapspossiblyprobablyreally
I
definitely saw her yesterday.
The
driver probably knows the quickest route.
3 You usually put adverbials of frequency and
probability before the main verb and after an auxiliary or a modal.
He
sometimes works downstairs in the kitchen.
You
are definitely wasting your time.
I
have never had such a horrible meal!
I
shall never forget this day.
Note that you usually put them after `be'
as a main verb.
He
is always careful with his money.
You
are probably right.
`Perhaps' usually comes at the beginning of
the sentence.
Perhaps
the beaches are cleaner in the north.
Perhaps
you need a membership card to get in.
`A lot' always comes after the main verb.
I
go swimming a lot in the summer.
4 `Never' is a negative adverb.
She
never goes abroad.
I've
never been to Europe.
You normally use `ever' in questions,
negative sentences, and `if'-clauses.
Have
you ever been to a football match?
Don't
ever do that again!
If
you ever need anything, just call me.
Note that you can sometimes use `ever' in
affirmative sentences, for example after a superlative.
She
is the best dancer I have ever seen.
You use `hardly ever' in affirmative
sentences to mean almost never.
We
hardly ever meet.
Unit 42 Adverbials of duration
Main points
* `Already' is used to say that something
has happened earlier than expected.
* `Still' is used to say that something
continues to happen until a particular time.
* `Yet' is used to say that something has
not happened before a particular time.
* `Any longer', `any more', `no longer',
and `no more' are used to say that something has stopped happening.
1 You use adverbials of duration to say that
an event or situation is continuing, stopping, or is not happening at the
moment.
She
still lives in London.
I
couldn't stand it any more.
It
isn't dark yet.
2 You use `already' to say that something has
happened sooner than it was expected to happen. You put `already' in front of
the main verb.
He
had already bought the cups and saucers.
I've
already seen them.
The
guests were already coming in.
You put `already' after `be' as a main
verb.
Julie
was already in bed.
You can also use `already' to emphasize
that something is the case, for example when someone else does not know or is
not sure.
I
am already aware of that problem.
You do not normally use `already' in
negative statements, but you can use it in negative `if'-clauses.
Show
it to him if he hasn't already seen it.
You
can put `already' at the beginning or end of a clause for emphasis.
Already
he was calculating the profit he could make.
I've
done it already.
3 You use `still' to say that a situation
continues to exist up to a particular time in the past, present, or future. You
put `still' in front of the main verb.
We
were still waiting for the election results.
My
family still live in India.
You
will still get tickets, if you hurry.
You put `still' after `be' as a main verb.
Martin's
mother died, but his father is still alive.
You can use `still' after the subject and
before the verb group in negative sentences to express surprise or impatience.
You
still haven't given us the keys.
He
still didn't say a word.
It
was after midnight, and he still wouldn't leave.
Remember that you can use `still' at the
beginning of a clause with a similar meaning to `after all' or `nevertheless'.
Still,
he is my brother, so I'll have to help him.
Still,
it's not too bad. We didn't lose all the money.
4 You use `yet' at the end of negative
sentences and questions to say that something has not happened or had not
happened up to a particular time, but is or was expected to happen later.
We
haven't got the tickets yet.
Have
you joined the swimming club yet?
They
hadn't seen the baby yet.
Remember that `yet' can also be used at the
beginning of a clause with a similar meaning to `but'.
I
don't miss her, yet I do often wonder where she went.
They
know they won't win. Yet they keep on trying.
5 You use `any longer' and `any more' at the
end of negative clauses to say that a past situation has ended and does not
exist now or will not exist in the future.
I
wanted the job, but I couldn't wait any longer.
He's
not going to play any more.
In formal English, you can use an
affirmative clause with `no longer' and `no more'. You can put them at the end
of the clause, or in front of the main verb.
He
could stand the pain no more.
He
no longer wanted to buy it.
Unit 43 Adverbials of degree
Main points
* Adverbs of degree usually modify verbs.
* Some adverbs of degree can modify
adjectives, other adverbs, or clauses.
1 You use adverbs of degree to modify verbs.
They make the verb stronger or weaker.
I
totally disagree.
I
can nearly swim.
2 Some adverbs can come in front of a main
verb, after a main verb, or after the object if there is one.
badlygreatlystrongly
completelyseriouslytotally
Mr
Brooke strongly criticized the Bank of England.
I
disagree completely with John Taylor.
That
argument doesn't convince me totally.
Some adverbs are mostly used in front of
the verb.
almostlargelynearlyreallyquite
He
almost crashed into a lorry.
Note that `really' is used at the beginning
of a clause to express surprise, and at the end of a clause as an adverb of
manner.
Really,
I didn't know that!
He
wanted it really, but was too shy to ask.
`A lot' and `very much' come after the main
verb if there is no object, or after the object.
She
helped a lot.
We
liked him very much.
`Very much' can come after the subject and
in front of verbs like `want', `prefer', and `enjoy'.
I
very much wanted to take it with me.
3 Some adverbs of degree go in front of
adjectives or other adverbs and modify them.
awfullyfairlyquitereally
extremelyprettyrathervery
...a
fairly large office, with filing space.
Note that you can use `rather' before or
after `a' or `an' followed by an adjective and a noun.
Seaford
is rather a pleasant town.
It
is a rather complicated story.
When `quite' means `fairly', you put it in
front of `a' or `an' followed by an adjective and a noun.
My
father gave me quite a large sum of money.
However, when `quite' means `extremely',
you can put it after `a'. You can say `a quite enormous sum'.
4 You use some adverbs of degree to modify
clauses and prepositional phrases.
entirelyjustlargelymainlypartlysimply
Are
you saying that simply because I am here?
I
don't think it's worth going just for a day.
5 You use `so' and `such' to emphasize a
quality that someone or something has. `So' can be followed by an adjective, an
adverb, or a noun group beginning with `many', `much', `few', or `little'.
John
is so interesting to talk to.
Science
is changing so rapidly.
I
want to do so many different things.
`Such' is followed by a singular noun group
with `a', or a plural noun group.
There
was such a noise we couldn't hear.
They
said such nasty things .
WARNING: `So' is never followed by a
singular noun group with `a' or a plural noun group.
6 You use `too' when you mean `more than is
necessary' or `more than is good'. You can use `too' before adjectives and
adverbs, and before `many', `much', `few', or `little'.
The
prices are too high.
I've
been paying too much tax.
You use `enough' after adjectives and
adverbs.
I
waited until my daughter was old enough to read.
He
didn't work quickly enough.
Note that `enough' is also a determiner.
We've
got enough money to buy that car now.
7 You use emphasizing adverbs to modify
adjectives such as `astonishing', `furious', and `wonderful', which express
extreme qualities.
absolutelyentirelypurelyreallytotally
completelyperfectlyquitesimplyutterly
I
think he's absolutely wonderful.
Unit 44 Place and direction
Main points
* This includes words like: `above',
`below', `down', `from', `to', `towards'and `up'.
* You normally use prepositional phrases to
say where a person or thing is, or the direction they are moving in.
* You can also use adverbs and adverb
phrases for place and direction.
* Many words are both prepositions and
adverbs.
1 You use prepositions to talk about the
place where someone or something is. Prepositions are always followed by a noun
group, which is called the object of the preposition.
above,
among, at, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, in, inside, near, on,
opposite, outside, over, round, through, under, underneath
He
stood near the door.
Two
minutes later we were safely inside the taxi.
Note that some prepositions consist of more
than one word.
in
between, in front of, next to, on top of
There
was a man standing in front of me.
The
books were piled on top of each other.
2 You can also use prepositions to talk about
the direction that someone or something is moving in, or the place that someone
or something is moving towards.
acrossdownout
ofthroughup
alongintopastto
back
toontoroundtowards
They
dived into the water.
She
turned and rushed out of the room.
3 Many prepositions can be used both for
place and direction.
The
bank is just across the High Street. (place)
I
walked across the room. (direction)
We
live in the house over the road. (place)
I
stole his keys and escaped over the wall. (direction)
4 You can also use adverbs and adverb phrases
for place and direction.
abroadhereundergroundanywhere
awayindoorsupstairseverywhere
downstairsoutdoorsnowhere
downwardstheresomewhere
Sheila
was here a moment ago.
Can't
you go upstairs and turn the bedroom light off?
Note that a few noun groups can also be
used as adverbials of place or direction.
Steve
lives next door at number 23.
I
thought we went the other way last time.
5 Many words can be used as prepositions and
as adverbs, with no difference in meaning. Remember that prepositions have noun
groups as objects, but adverbs do not.
Did
he fall down the stairs?
Please
do sit down.
I
looked underneath the bed, but the box had gone!
Always
put a sheet of paper underneath.
Unit 45 Place * at, in, on
Main points
* You use `at' to talk about a place as a
point.
* You use `in' to talk about a place as an
area.
* You use `on' to talk about a place as a
surface.
1 You use `at' when you are thinking of a
place as a point in space.
She
waited at the bus stop for over twenty minutes.
`Where
were you last night?' - `At Mick's house.'
2 You also use `at' with words such as
`back', `bottom', `end', `front', and `top' to talk about the different parts
of a place.
Mrs
Castle was waiting at the bottom of the stairs.
They
escaped by a window at the back of the house.
I
saw a taxi at the end of the street.
You use `at' with public places and
institutions. Note that you also say `at home' and `at work'.
I
have to be at the station by ten o'clock.
We
landed at a small airport.
A
friend of mine is at Training College.
She
wanted to stay at home.
You say `at the corner' or `on the corner'
when you are talking about streets.
The
car was parked at the corner of the street.
There's
a telephone box on the corner.
You say `in the corner' when you are
talking about a room.
She
put the chair in the corner of the room.
3 You use `in' when you are talking about a
place as an area. You use `in' with:
* a country or geographical region
When
I was in Spain, it was terribly cold.
A
thousand homes in the east of Scotland suffered power cuts.
* a city, town, or village
I've
been teaching at a college in London.
* a building when you are talking about
people or things inside it
They
were sitting having dinner in the restaurant.
You also use `in' with containers of any
kind when talking about things inside them.
She
kept the cards in a little box.
4 Compare the use of `at' and `in' in these
examples.
I
had a hard day at the office. (`at' emphasizes the office as a public place or
institution)
I
left my coat behind in the office. (`in' emphasizes the office as a building)
There's
a good film at the cinema. (`at' emphasizes the cinema as a public place)
It
was very cold in the cinema. (`in' emphasizes the cinema as a building.)
5 When talking about addresses, you use `at'
when you give the house number, and `in' when you just give the name of the
street.
They
used to live at 5, Weston Road.
She
got a job in Oxford Street.
Note that American English uses `on': `He
lived on Penn Street.'
You use `at' when you are talking about
someone's house.
I'll
see you at Fred's house.
6 You use `on' when you are talking about a
place as a surface. You can also use `on top of'.
I
sat down on the sofa.
She
put her keys on top of the television.
You also use `on' when you are thinking of
a place as a point on a line, such as a road, a railway line, a river, or a
coastline.
Scrabster
is on the north coast.
Oxford
is on the A34 between Birmingham and London.
See Unit 40 for information on `at', `in',
and `on' in adverbials of time.
Prepared by SANN RAKSMEY
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