Unit 1 Clause and sentence structure
Main points
* Simple sentences have one clause.
* Clauses usually consist of a noun group
as the subject, and a verb group.
* Clauses can also have another noun group
as the object or complement.
* Clauses can have an adverbial, also
called an adjunct.
* Changing the order of the words in a
clause can change its meaning.
* Compound sentences consist of two or more
main clauses. Complex sentences always include a subordinate clause, as well as
one or more main clauses.
1 A simple sentence has one clause, beginning
with a noun group called the subject. The subject is the person or thing that
the sentence is about. This is followed by a verb group, which tells you what
the subject is doing, or describes the subject's situation.
I
waited.
The
girl screamed.
2 The verb group may be followed by another
noun group, which is called the object. The object is the person or thing
affected by the action or situation.
He
opened the car door.
She
married a young engineer.
After link verbs like `be', `become',
`feel', and `seem', the verb group may be followed by a noun group or an
adjective, called a complement. The complement tells you more about the
subject.
She
was a doctor.
He
was angry.
3 The verb group, the object, or the
complement can be followed by an adverb or a prepositional phrase, called an
adverbial. The adverbial tells you more about the action or situation, for example
how, when, or where it happens. Adverbials are also called adjuncts.
They
shouted loudly.
She
won the competition last week.
He
was a policeman in Birmingham
4 The word order of a clause is different
when the clause is a statement, a question, or a command.
He
speaks English very well. (statement)
Did
she win at the Olympics? (question)
Stop
her. (command)
Note that the subject is omitted in
commands, so the verb comes first.
5 A compound sentence has two or more main
clauses: that is, clauses which are equally important. You join them with
`and', `but', or `or'.
He
met Jane at the station and went shopping.
I
wanted to go but I felt too ill.
You
can come now or you can meet us there later.
Note that the order of the two clauses can
change the meaning of the sentence.
He
went shopping and met Jane at the station.
If the subject of both clauses is the same,
you usually omit the subject in the second clause.
I
wanted to go but felt too ill.
6 A
complex sentence contains a subordinate clause and at least one main clause. A
subordinate clause gives information about a main clause, and is introduced by
a conjunction such as `because', `if', `that', or a `wh'-word. Subordinate
clauses can come before, after, or inside the main clause.
When
he stopped, no one said anything.
If
you want, I'll teach you.
They
were going by car because it was more comfortable.
I
told him that nothing was going to happen to me.
The
car that I drove was a Ford.
The
man who came into the room was small.
Unit 2 The noun
group
Main points
* Noun groups can be the subject, object,
or complement of a verb, or the object of a preposition.
* Noun groups can be nouns on their own,
but often include other words such as determiners, numbers, and adjectives.
* Noun groups can also be pronouns.
* Singular noun groups take singular verbs,
plural noun groups take plural verbs.
1 Noun groups are used to say which people or
things you are talking about. They can be the subject or object of a verb.
Strawberries
are very expensive now.
Keith
likes strawberries.
A noun group can also be the complement of
a link verb such as `be', `become', `feel', or `seem'.
She
became champion in 1964.
He
seemed a nice man.
A noun group can be used after a
preposition, and is often called the object of the preposition.
I
saw him in town.
She
was very ill for six months.
2 A noun group can be a noun on its own, but
it often includes other words. A noun group can have a determiner such as `the'
or `a'. You put determiners at the beginning of the noun group.
The
girls were not in the house.
He
was eating an apple.
3 A noun group can include an adjective. You
usually put the adjective in front of the noun.
He
was using blue ink.
I
like living in a big city.
Sometimes you can use another noun in front
of the noun.
I
like chocolate cake.
She
wanted a job in the oil industry.
A noun with 's (apostrophe s) is used in
front of another noun to show who or what something belongs to or is connected
with.
I
held Sheila's hand very tightly.
He
pressed a button on the ship's radio.
4 A noun group can also have an adverbial, a
relative clause, or a `to'-infinitive clause after it, which makes it more
precise.
I
spoke to a girl in a dark grey dress.
She
wrote to the man who employed me.
I
was trying to think of a way to stop him.
A common adverbial used after a noun is a
prepositional phrase beginning with `of'.
He
tied the rope to a large block of stone.
The
front door of the house was wide open.
I
hated the idea of leaving him alone.
Participles and some adjectives can also be
used after a noun.
See Units 19 and 29.
She
pointed to the three cards lying on the table.
He
is the only man available.
5 Numbers come after determiners and before
adjectives.
I
had to pay a thousand dollars.
Three
tall men came out of the shed.
6 A noun group can also be a pronoun. You
often use a pronoun when you are referring back to a person or thing that you
have already mentioned.
I've
got two boys, and they both enjoy playing football.
You also use a pronoun when you do not know
who the person or thing is, or do not want to be precise.
Someone
is coming to mend it tomorrow.
7 A noun group can refer to one or more
people or things. Many nouns have a singular form referring to one person or
thing, and a plural form referring to more than one person or thing.
See Unit 4.
My
dog never bites people.
She
likes dogs.
Similarly, different pronouns are used in
the singular and in the plural.
I
am going home now.
We
want more money.
When a singular noun group is the subject,
it takes a singular verb. When a plural noun group is the subject, it takes a
plural verb.
His
son plays football for the school.
Her
letters are always very short.
Unit 3 The verb group
Main points
* In a clause, the verb group usually comes
after the subject and always has a main verb.
* The main verb has several different
forms.
* Verb groups can also include one or two
auxiliaries, or a modal, or a modal and one or two auxiliaries.
* The verb group changes in negative
clauses and questions.
* Some verb groups are followed by an
adverbial, a complement, an object, or two objects.
1 The verb group in a clause is used to say
what is happening in an action or situation. You usually put the verb group
immediately after the subject. The verb group always includes a main verb.
I
waited.
They
killed the elephants.
2 Regular verbs have four forms: the base
form, the third person singular form of the present simple, the `-ing' form or
present participle, and the `-ed' form used for the past simple and for the
past participle.
ask*
asks* asking* asked
dance*
dances* dancing* danced
reach*
reaches* reaching* reached
try*
tries* trying* tried
dip*
dips* dipping* dipped
Irregular verbs may have three forms, four
forms, or five forms. Note that `be' has eight forms.
cost*
costs* costing
think*
thinks* thinking* thought
swim*
swims* swimming* swam* swum
be*
am/is/are* being* was/were* been
See the Appendix for details of verb forms.
3 The main verb can have one or two
auxiliaries in front of it.
I
had met him in Zermatt.
The
car was being repaired.
The main verb can have a modal in front of
it.
You
can go now.
I
would like to ask you a question.
The main verb can have a modal and one or
two auxiliaries in front of it.
I
could have spent the whole year on it.
She
would have been delighted to see you.
4 In negative clauses, you have to use a
modal or auxiliary and put `not' after the first word of the verb group.
He
does not speak English very well.
I
was not smiling.
It
could not have been wrong.
Note that you often use short forms rather
than `not'.
I
didn't know that.
He
couldn't see it.
5 In `yes/no' questions, you have to put an
auxiliary or modal first, then the subject, then the rest of the verb group.
Did
you meet George?
Couldn't
you have been a bit quieter?
In `wh'-questions, you put the `wh'-word
first. If the `wh'-word is the subject, you put the verb group next.
Which
came first?
Who
could have done it?
If the `wh'-word is the object or an
adverbial, you must use an auxiliary or modal next, then the subject, then the
rest of the verb group.
What
did you do?
Where
could she be going?
6 Some verb groups have an object or two
objects after them.
See Units 72 and 73.
He
closed the door.
She
sends you her love.
Verb groups involving link verbs, such as
`be', have a complement after them.
See Unit 80.
They
were sailors.
She
felt happy.
Some verb groups have an adverbial after
them.
We
walked through the park.
She
put the letter on the table.
Unit 4 The imperative and `let'
Main points
* The imperative is the same as the base
form of a verb.
* You form a negative imperative with `do
not', `don't', or `never'.
* You use the imperative to ask or tell
someone to do something, or to give advice, warnings, or instructions on how to
do something.
* You use `let' when you are offering to do
something, making suggestions, or telling someone to do something.
1 The imperative is the same as the base form
of a verb. You do not use a pronoun in front of it.
Come
to my place.
Start
when you hear the bell.
2 You form a negative imperative by putting
`do not', `don't', or `never' in front of the verb.
Do
not write in this book.
Don't
go so fast.
Never
open the front door to strangers.
3 You use the imperative when you are:
* asking or telling someone to do something
Pass
the salt.
Hurry
up!
* giving someone advice or a warning
Mind
your head.
Take
care!
* giving someone instructions on how to do
something
Put
this bit over here, so it fits into that hole.
Turn
right off Broadway into Caxton Street.
4 When you want to make an imperative more
polite or more emphatic, you can put `do' in front of it.
Do
have a chocolate biscuit.
Do
stop crying.
Do
be careful.
5 The imperative is also used in written
instructions on how to do something, for example on notices and packets of
food, and in books.
To
report faults, dial 6666.
Store
in a dry place.
Fry
the chopped onion and pepper in the oil.
Note that written instructions usually have
to be short. This means that words such as `the' are often omitted.
Wear
rubber gloves. Turn off switch. Wipe bulb.
Written imperatives are also used to give
warnings.
Reduce
speed now.
6 You use `let me' followed by the base form
of a verb when you are offering to do something for someone.
Let
me take your coat.
Let
me give you a few details.
7 You use `let's' followed by the base form
of a verb when you are suggesting what you and someone else should do.
Let's
go outside.
Let's
look at our map.
Note that the form `let us' is only used in
formal or written English.
Let
us consider a very simple example.
You put `do' before `let's' when you are
very keen to do something.
Do
let's get a taxi.
The negative of `let's' is `let's not' or
`don't let's'.
Let's
not talk about that.
Don't
let's actually write it in the book.
8 You use `let' followed by a noun group and
the base form of a verb when you are telling someone to do something or to
allow someone else to do it.
Let
me see it.
Let
Philip have a look at it.
Unit 5 Questions
Main points
* In most questions the first verb comes
before the subject.
* `Yes/no'-questions begin with an
auxiliary or a modal.
* `Wh'-questions begin with a `wh'-word.
1 Questions which can be answered `yes' or
`no' are called `yes/no'-questions.
`Are
you ready?' - `Yes.'
`Have
you read this magazine?' - `No.'
If the verb group has more than one word,
the first word comes at the beginning of the sentence, before the subject. The
rest of the verb group comes after the subject.
Is
he coming?
Can
John swim?
Will
you have finished by lunchtime?
Couldn't
you have been a bit quieter?
Has
he been working?
2 If the verb group consists of only a main
verb, you use the auxiliary `do', `does', or `did' at the beginning of the
sentence, before the subject. After the subject you use the base form of the
verb.
Do
the British take sport seriously?
Does
that sound like anyone you know?
Did
he go to the fair?
Note that when the main verb is `do', you
still have to add `do', `does', or `did' before the subject.
Do
they do the work themselves?
Did
you do an `O' Level in German?
3 If the main verb is `have', you usually put
`do', `does', or `did' before the subject.
Does
anyone have a question?
Did
you have a good flight?
When `have' means `own' or `possess', you
can put it before the subject, without using `do', `does', or `did', but this
is less common.
Has
he any idea what it's like?
4 If the main verb is the present simple or
past simple of `be', you put the verb at the beginning of the sentence, before
the subject.
Are
you ready?
Was
it lonely without us?
5 When you want someone to give you more
information than just `yes' or `no', you ask a `wh'-question, which begins with
a `wh'-word:
whatwherewhowhose
whenwhichwhomwhyhow
Note that `whom' is only used in formal
English.
6 When a `wh'-word is the subject of a
question, the `wh'-word comes first, then the verb group. You do not add `do',
`does', or `did' as an auxiliary.
What
happened?
Which
is the best restaurant?
Who
could have done it?
7 When a `wh'-word is the object of a verb or
preposition, the `wh'-word comes first, then you follow the rules for
`yes/no'-questions, adding `do', `does', or `did' where necessary.
How
many are there?
Which
do you like best?
If there is a preposition, it comes at the
end. However, you always put the preposition before `whom'.
What's
this for?
With
whom were you talking?
Note that you follow the same rules as for
`wh'-words as objects when the question begins with `when', `where', `why', or
`how'.
When
would you be coming down?
Why
did you do it?
Where
did you get that from?
8 You can also use `what', `which', `whose',
`how many', and `how much' with a noun.
Whose
idea was it?
How
much money have we got in the bank?
You can use `which', `how many', and `how
much' with `of' and a noun group.
Which
of the suggested answers was the correct one?
How
many of them bothered to come?
See Unit 6 for more information on
`wh'-words.
Unit 6 `Wh'-questions
Main points
* You use `who', `whom', and `whose' to ask
about people, and `which' to ask about people or things.
* You use `what' to ask about things, and
`what for' to ask about reasons and purposes.
* You use `how' to ask about the way
something happens.
* You use `when' to ask about times, `why'
to ask about reasons, and `where' to ask about places and directions.
1 You use `who', `whom', or `whose' in
questions about people. `Who' is used to ask questions about the subject or object
of the verb, or about the object of a preposition.
Who
discovered this?
Who
did he marry?
Who
did you dance with?
In formal English, `whom' is used as the
object of a verb or preposition. The preposition always comes in front of
`whom'.
Whom
did you see?
For
whom were they supposed to do it?
You use `whose' to ask which person
something belongs to or is related to. `Whose' can be the subject or the
object.
Whose
is nearer?
Whose
did you prefer, hers or mine?
2 You use `which' to ask about one person or
thing, out of a number of people or things. `Which' can be the subject or
object.
Which
is your son?
Which
does she want?
3 You use `what' to ask about things, for
example about actions and events. `What' can be the subject or object.
What
has happened to him?
What
is he selling?
What
will you talk about?
You use `what...for' to ask about the
reason for an action, or the purpose of an object.
What
are you going there for?
What
are those lights for?
4 You use `how' to ask about the way in which
something happens or is done.
How
did you know we were coming?
How
are you going to get home?
You also use `how' to ask about the way a
person or thing feels or looks.
`How
are you?' - `Well, how do I look?'
5 `How' is also used:
* with adjectives to ask about the degree
of quality that someone or something has
How
good are you at Maths?
How
hot shall I make the curry?
* with adjectives such as `big', `old', and
`far' to ask about size, age, and distance
How
old are your children?
How
far is it to Montreal from here?
Note that you do not normally use `How
small', `How young', or `How near'.
* with adverbs such as `long' and `often'
to ask about time, or `well' to ask about abilities
How
long have you lived here?
How
well can you read?
* with `many' and `much' to ask about the
number or amount of something
How
many were there?
How
much did he tell you?
6 You use `when' to ask about points in time
or periods of time, `why' to ask about the reason for an action, and `where' to
ask about place and direction.
When
are you coming home?
When
were you in London?
Why
are you here?
Where
is the station?
Where
are you going?
You can also ask about direction using
`which direction...in' or `which way'.
Which
direction did he go in?
Which
way did he go?
Unit 7 Question tags: forms
Main points
* You add a question tag to a statement to
turn it into a question.
* A question tag consists of a verb and a
pronoun. The verb in a question tag is always an auxiliary, a modal, or a form
of the main verb `be'.
* With a positive statement, you usually
use a negative question tag containing a short form ending in `-n't'.
* With a negative statement, you always use
a positive question tag.
1 A question tag is a short phrase that is
added to the end of a statement to turn it into a `yes/no'-question. You use
question tags when you want to ask someone to confirm or disagree with what you
are saying, or when you want to sound more polite. Question tags are rarely
used in formal written English.
He's
very friendly, isn't he?
You
haven't seen it before, have you?
2 You form a question tag by using an
auxiliary, a modal, or a form of the main verb `be', followed by a pronoun. The
pronoun refers to the subject of the statement.
David's
school is quite nice, isn't it?
She
made a remarkable recovery, didn't she?
3 If the statement contains an auxiliary or
modal, the same auxiliary or modal is used in the question tag.
Jill's
coming tomorrow, isn't she?
You
didn't know I was an artist, did you?
You've
never been to Benidorm, have you?
You
will stay in touch, won't you?
4 If the statement does not contain an
auxiliary, a modal, or `be' as a main verb, you use `do', `does', or `did' in
the question tag.
You
like it here, don't you?
Sally
still works there, doesn't she?
He
played for Ireland, didn't he?
5 If the statement contains the present
simple or past simple of `be' as a main verb, the same form of the verb `be' is
used in the question tag.
It
is quite warm, isn't it?
They
were really rude, weren't they?
6 If the statement contains the simple
present or simple past of `have' as a main verb, you usually use `do', `does',
or `did' in the question tag.
He
has a problem, doesn't he?
You can also use the same form of `have' in
the question tag, but this is not very common.
She
has a large house, hasn't she?
7 With a positive statement you normally use
a negative question tag, formed by adding `-n't' to the verb.
You
like Ralph a lot, don't you?
They
are beautiful, aren't they?
Note that the negative question tag with
`I' is `aren't'.
I'm
a fool, aren't I?
8 With a negative statement you always use a
positive question tag.
It
doesn't work, does it?
You
won't tell anyone else, will you?
Unit 8 Question tags: uses
Main points
* You can use negative statements with
positive question tags to make requests.
* You use positive statements with positive
question tags to show reactions.
* You use some question tags to make
imperatives more polite.
1 You can use a negative statement and a
positive question tag to ask people for things, or to ask for help or
information.
You
wouldn't sell it to me, would you?
You
won't tell anyone else this, will you?
2 When you want to show your reaction to what
someone has just said, for example by expressing interest, surprise, doubt, or
anger, you use a positive statement with a positive question tag.
You've
been to North America before, have you?
You
fell on your back, did you?
I
borrowed your car last night. - Oh, you did, did you?
3 When you use an imperative, you can be more
polite by adding one of the following question tags.
will
youwon't youwould you
See
that she gets safely back, won't you?
Look
at that, would you?
When you use a negative imperative, you can
only use `will you' as a question tag.
Don't
tell Howard, will you?
`Will you' and `won't you' can also be used
to emphasize anger or impatience. `Can't you' is also used in this way.
Oh,
hurry up, will you!
For
goodness sake be quiet, can't you!
4 You use the question tag `shall we' when
you make a suggestion using `let's'.
Let's
forget it, shall we?
You use the question tag `shall I' after
`I'll'.
I'll
tell you, shall I?
5 You use `they' in question tags after
`anybody', `anyone', `everybody', `everyone', `nobody', `no one', `somebody' or
`someone'.
Everyone
will be leaving on Friday, won't they?
Nobody
had bothered to plant new ones, had they?
You use `it' in question tags after
`anything', `everything', `nothing', or `something'.
Nothing
matters now, does it?
Something
should be done, shouldn't it?
You use `there' in question tags after
`there is', `there are', `there was', or `there were'.
There's
a new course out now, isn't there?
6 When you are replying to a question tag,
your answer refers to the statement, not the question tag.
If you want to confirm a positive
statement, you say `yes'. For example, if you have finished a piece of work and
someone says to you `You've finished that, haven't you?', the answer is `yes'.
`It
became stronger, didn't it?' - `Yes, it did.'
If you want to disagree with a positive
statement, you say `no'. For example, if you have not finished your work and
someone says `You've finished that, haven't you?', the answer is `no'.
You've
just seen a performance of the play, haven't you? - No, not yet.
If you want to confirm a negative
statement, you say `no'. For example, if you have not finished your work and
someone says `You haven't finished that, have you?', the answer is `no'.
`You
didn't know that, did you?' - `No.'
If you want to disagree with a negative
statement, you say `yes'. For example, if you have finished a piece of work and
someone says `You haven't finished that, have you?', the answer is `yes'.
`You
haven't been there, have you?' - `Yes, I have.'
Unit 10 Short answers
Main points
* A short answer uses an auxiliary, a
modal, or the main verb `be'.
* A short answer can be in the form of a
statement or a question.
1 Short answers are very common in spoken
English. For example, when someone asks you a `yes/no'-question, you can give a
short answer by using a pronoun with an auxiliary, modal, or the main verb `be'.
You usually put `yes' or `no' before the short answer.
`Does
she still want to come?' - `Yes, she does.'
`Can
you imagine what it might feel like?' - `No, I can't.'
`Are
you married?' - `I am.'
Note that a short answer such as `Yes, I
will' is more polite or friendly than just `Yes', or than repeating all the
words used in the question. People often repeat all the words used in the
question when they feel angry or impatient.
`Will
you have finished by lunchtime?' - `Yes, I will have finished by lunchtime.'
2 You can also use short answers to agree or
disagree with what someone says.
`You
don't like Joan?' - `No, I don't.'
`I'm
not coming with you.' - `Yes, you are.'
If the statement that you are commenting on
does not contain an auxiliary, modal, or the main verb `be', you use a form of
`do' in the short answer.
`He
never comes on time.' - `Oh yes he does.'
3 You often reply to what has been said by
using a short question.
`He's
not in Japan now.' - `Oh, isn't he?'
`He
gets free meals.' - `Does he?'
Note that questions like these are not
always asked to get information, but are often used to express your reaction to
what has been said, for example to show interest or surprise.
`Dad
doesn't help me at all.' - `Doesn't he? Why not?'
`Penny
has been climbing before.' - `Oh, has she? When was that?'
4 If you want to show that you definitely
agree with a positive statement that someone has just made, you can use a
negative short question.
`Well,
that was very nice.' - `Yes, wasn't it?'
5 When you want to ask for more information,
you can use a `wh'-word on its own or with a noun as a short answer.
`He
saw a snake.' - `Where?'
`He
knew my cousin.' - `Which cousin?'
You can also use `Which one' and `Which
ones'.
`Can
you pass me the cup?' - `Which one?'
6 Sometimes a statement about one person also
applies to another person. When this is the case, you can use a short answer
with `so' for positive statements, and with `neither' or `nor' for negative
statements, using the same verb that was used in the statement.
You use `so', `neither', or `nor' with an
auxiliary, modal, or the main verb `be'. The verb comes before the subject.
`You
were different then.' - `So were you.'
`I
don't normally drink at lunch.' - `Neither do I.'
`I
can't do it.' - `Nor can I.'
You can use `not either' instead of
`neither', in which case the verb comes after the subject.
`He
doesn't understand.' - `We don't either.'
7 You often use `so' in short answers after
verbs such as `think', `hope', `expect', `imagine', and `suppose', when you
think that the answer to the question is `yes'.
`You'll
be home at six?' - `I hope so.'
`So
it was worth doing?' - `I suppose so.'
You use `I'm afraid so' when you are sorry
that the answer is `yes'.
`Is
it raining?' - `I'm afraid so.'
With `suppose', `think', `imagine', or
`expect' in short answers, you also form negatives with `so'.
`Will
I see you again?' - `I don't suppose so.'
`Is
Barry Knight a golfer?' - `No, I don't think so.'
However, you say `I hope not' and `I'm
afraid not'.
`It
isn't empty, is it?' - `I hope not.'
Unit 11 Sentences with `not'
Main points
* `Not' is often shortened to `-n't' and
added to some verbs.
* You put `not' after the first verb in the
verb group, or you use a short form.
1 In spoken and in informal written English,
`not' is often shortened to `-n't' and added to an auxiliary, a modal, or a
form of the main verb `be'.
I
haven't heard from her recently.
I
wasn't angry.
Here is a list of short forms.
isn'thaven'tdon'tcan'tshan'tdaren't
aren'thasn'tdoesn'tcouldn'tshouldn'tneedn't
wasn'thadn'tdidn'tmightn'twon't
weren'tmustn'twouldn't
oughtn't
If the verb is already shortened, you
cannot add `-n't'.
It's
not easy.
I've
not had time.
You cannot add `-n't' to `am'. You use `I'm
not'.
I'm
not excited.
2 If the verb group has more than one word,
you put `not' after the first word, or you use a short form.
I
was not smiling.
He
hadn't attended many meetings.
They
might not notice.
I
haven't been playing football recently.
3 If the sentence only contains a main verb
other than `be', you use the auxiliary `do'.
You use `do not', `does not', `did not', or
a short form, followed by the base form of the main verb.
They
do not need to talk.
He
does not speak English very well.
I
didn't know that.
Note that if the main verb is `do', you still
use a form of `do' as an auxiliary.
They
didn't do anything about it.
4 If the main verb is the present or past
simple of `be', you put `not' immediately after it, or you use a short form.
It
is not difficult to understand.
It's
not the same, is it?
He
wasn't a bad actor actually.
5 If the main verb is `have', you usually use
a form of `do' as an auxiliary.
They
don't have any money.
You can also use a short form, or you can
put `not' after the verb but this is not very common.
He
hadn't enough money.
6 You can put `not' in front of an `-ing'
form or a `to'-infinitive.
We
stood there, not knowing what to do.
Try
not to worry.
7 In negative questions, you use a short
form.
Why
didn't she win at the Olympics?
Hasn't
he put on weight?
Aren't
you bored?
8 You can use a negative question:
* to express your feelings, for example to
show that you are surprised or disappointed
Hasn't
he done it yet?
* in exclamations
Isn't
the weather awful!
* when you think you know something and you
just want someone to agree with you
`Aren't
you Joanne's brother?' - `Yes, I am.'
9 Note the meaning of `yes' and `no' in
answers to negative questions.
`Isn't
Tracey going to get a bit bored in Birmingham?'
-
`Yes.' (She is going to get bored.)
-
`No.' (She is not going to get bored.)
Unit 12 Negative words
Main points
* A negative sentence contains a negative
word.
* You do not normally use two negative
words in the same clause.
1 Negative statements contain a negative
word.
notnobodyneither
neverno
onenor
nonothing
nonenowhere
See Unit 11 for negative statements using
`not'.
2 You use `never' to say that something was
not the case at any time, or will not be the case at any time.
If the verb group has more than one word,
you put `never' after the first word.
I've
never had such a horrible meal.
He
could never trust her again.
3 If the only verb in the sentence is the
present simple or past simple of any main verb except `be', you put `never'
before the verb.
She
never goes abroad.
He
never went to university.
If the only verb in the sentence is the
simple present or simple past of the main verb `be', you normally put `never'
after the verb.
He's
never late.
There
were never any people in the house.
You can also use `never' at the beginning
of an imperative sentence.
Never
walk alone late at night.
4 You use `no' before a noun to say that
something does not exist or is not available.
He
has given no reason for his decision.
The
island has no trees at all.
Note that if there is another negative word
in the clause, you use `any', not `no'.
It
won't do any good.
5 You use `none' or `none of' to say that
there is not even one thing or person, or not even a small amount of something.
You
can't go to a college here because there are none in this area.
`Where's
the coffee?' - `There's none left.'
None
of us understood the play.
See Unit 27 for more information on `none'
and `none of'.
6 You also use `nobody', `no one', `nothing',
and `nowhere' in negative statements.
You use `nobody' or `no one' to talk about
people.
Nobody
in her house knows any English.
No
one knew.
`No one' can also be written `no-one'.
There's
no-one here.
You use `nothing' to talk about things.
There's
nothing you can do.
You use `nowhere' to talk about places.
There's
almost nowhere left to go.
See Unit 21 for more information about
these words.
7 You do not normally use two negative words
in the same clause. For example, you do not say `Nobody could see nothing'. You
say `Nobody could see anything'.
You use `anything', `anyone', `anybody',
and `anywhere' instead of `nothing', `no one', `nobody', and `nowhere' when the
clause already contains a negative word.
No-one
can find Howard or Barbara anywhere.
I
could never discuss anything with them.
8 The only negative words that are often used
together in the same clause are `neither' and `nor'.
You use `neither' and `nor' together to say
that two alternatives are not possible, not likely, or not true.
Neither
Margaret nor John was there.
They
had neither food nor money.
Unit 13 Count nouns
Main points
* Count nouns have two forms, singular and
plural.
* They can be used with numbers.
* Singular count nouns always take a
determiner.
* Plural count nouns do not need a
determiner.
* Singular count nouns take a singular verb
and plural count nouns take a plural verb.
* In English, some things are thought of as
individual items that can be counted directly. The nouns which refer to these
countable things are called count nouns. Most nouns in English are count nouns.
See Unit 15 for information on uncount
nouns.
1 Count nouns have two forms. The singular
form refers to one thing or person.
...a
book... ...the teacher.
The plural form refers to more than one
thing or person.
...books...
...some teachers.
2 You add `-s' to form the plural of most
nouns.
book*
booksschool* schools
You add `-es' to nouns ending in `-ss',
`-ch', `-s', `-sh', or `-x'.
class*
classeswatch* watches
gas*
gasesdish* dishes
fox*
foxes
Some nouns ending in `-o' add `-s', and
some add `-es'.
photo*
photos piano* pianos
hero*
heroes potato* potatoes
Nouns ending in a consonant and `-y' change
to `-ies'.
country*
countries lady* ladies
party*
parties victory* victories
Nouns ending in a vowel and `-y' add an
`-s'.
boy*
boys day* days
key*
keys valley* valleys
Some common nouns have irregular plurals.
child*
children foot* feet
man*
men mouse* mice
tooth*
teeth woman* women
WARNING: Some nouns that end in `-s' are
uncount nouns, for example `athletics' and `physics'. See Unit 15.
3 Count nouns can be used with numbers.
...one
table... ...two cats... ...three hundred pounds.
4 Singular count nouns cannot be used alone,
but always take a determiner such as `a', `another', `every', or `the'.
We've
killed a pig.
He
was eating another apple.
I
parked the car over there.
5 Plural count nouns can be used with or
without a determiner. They do not take a determiner when they refer to things
or people in general.
Does
the hotel have large rooms?
The
film is not suitable for children.
Plural count nouns do take a determiner
when they refer precisely to particular things or people.
Our
computers are very expensive.
These
cakes are delicious.
See Unit 23 for more information on
determiners.
6 When a count noun is the subject of a verb,
a singular count noun takes a singular verb.
My
son likes playing football.
The
address on the letter was wrong.
A plural count noun takes a plural verb.
Bigger
cars cost more.
I
thought more people were coming.
See also Unit 14 on collective nouns.
Unit 14 Singular and plural
Main points
* Singular nouns are used only in the
singular, always with a determiner.
* Plural nouns are used only in the plural,
some with a determiner.
* Collective nouns can be used with
singular or plural verbs.
1 Some nouns are used in particular meanings
in the singular with a determiner, like count nouns, but are not used in the
plural with that meaning. They are often called `singular nouns'.
Some of these nouns are normally used with
`the' because they refer to things that are unique.
airdaytimemoonsky
countryendpastsun
countrysidefutureseawind
darkgroundseasideworld
The
sun was shining.
I
am scared of the dark.
Other singular nouns are normally used with
`a' because they refer to things that we usually talk about one at a time.
bathgoridesnooze
chancejogrunstart
drinkmoveshowerwalk
fightrestsmokewash
I
went upstairs and had a wash.
Why
don't we go outside for a smoke?
2 Some nouns are used in particular meanings
in the plural with or without determiners, like count nouns, but are not used
in the singular with that meaning. They are often called `plural nouns'.
His
clothes looked terribly dirty.
Troops
are being sent in today.
Some of these nouns are always used with
determiners.
activitiesfeelingspicturestravels
authoritieslikessights
I
went to the pictures with Tina.
You
hurt his feelings.
Some are usually used without determiners.
airsgoodsriches
expensesrefreshments
Refreshments
are available inside.
They
have agreed to pay for travel and expenses.
WARNING: `Police' is a plural noun, but
does not end in `-s'.
The
police were informed immediately.
3 A small group of plural nouns refer to single
items that have two linked parts. They refer to tools that people use or things
that people wear.
binocularsglassestrousers
pincersjeans
pliersknickers
scalespants
scissorspyjamas
shearsshorts
tweezerstights
She
was wearing brown trousers.
These
scissors are sharp.
You can use `a pair of' to make it clear
you are talking about one item, or a number with `pairs of' when you are
talking about several items.
I
was sent out to buy a pair of scissors.
Liza
had given me three pairs of jeans.
Note that you also use `a pair of' with
words such as `gloves', `shoes', and `socks' that you often talk about in twos.
4 With some nouns that refer to a group of
people or things, the same form can be used with singular or plural verbs,
because you can think of the group as a unit or as individuals. Similarly, you
can use singular or plural pronouns to refer back to them. These nouns are
often called `collective nouns'.
army,
audience, committee, company, crew, data, enemy, family, flock, gang,
government, group, herd, media, navy, press, public, staff, team
Our
little group is complete again.
The
largest group are the boys.
Our
family isn't poor any more.
My
family are perfectly normal.
The names of many organizations and sports
teams are also collective nouns, but are normally used with plural verbs in
spoken English.
The
BBC is showing the programme on Saturday.
The
BBC are planning to use the new satellite.
Liverpool
is leading 1-0.
Liverpool
are attacking again.
Unit 15 Uncount nouns
Main points
* Uncount nouns have only one form, and
take a singular verb.
* They are not used with `a', or with
numbers.
* Some nouns can be both uncount nouns and
count nouns.
1 English speakers think that some things
cannot be counted directly. The nouns which refer to these uncountable things
are called uncount nouns. Uncount nouns often refer to:
substances:coal
food ice iron rice steel water
human
qualities:courage cruelty honesty patience
feelings:anger
happiness joy pride relief respect
activities:aid
help sleep travel work
abstract
ideas:beauty death freedom fun life luck
The
donkey needed food and water.
Soon,
they lost patience and sent me to Durban.
I
was greeted with shouts of joy.
All
prices include travel to and from London.
We
talked for hours about freedom.
See Unit 13 for information on count nouns.
2 Uncount nouns have only one form. They do
not have a plural form.
I
needed help with my homework.
The
children had great fun playing with the puppets.
WARNING: Some nouns which are uncount nouns
in English have plurals in other languages.
advice,
baggage, equipment, furniture, homework, information, knowledge, luggage,
machinery, money, news, traffic
We
want to spend more money on roads.
Soldiers
carried so much equipment that they were barely able to move.
3 Some uncount nouns end in `-s' and
therefore look like plural count nouns. They usually refer to:
subjects
of study:mathematics physics
activities:athletics
gymnastics
games:cards
darts
illnesses:measles
mumps
Mathematics
is too difficult for me.
Measles
is in most cases a harmless illness.
4 When an uncount noun is the subject of a
verb, it takes a singular verb.
Electricity
is dangerous.
Food
was very expensive in those days.
5 Uncount nouns are not used with `a'.
They
resent having to pay money to people like me.
My
father started work when he was ten.
Uncount nouns are used with `the' when they
refer to something that is specified or known.
I
am interested in the education of young children.
She
buried the money that Hilary had given her.
6 Uncount nouns are not used with numbers.
However, you can often refer to a quantity of something which is expressed by
an uncount noun, by using a word like `some'.
See Unit 23.
Please
buy some bread when you go to town.
Let
me give you some advice.
Some uncount nouns that refer to food or
drink can be count nouns when they refer to quantities of the food or drink.
Do
you like coffee? (uncount)
We
asked for two coffees. (count)
Uncount nouns are often used with
expressions such as `a loaf of', `packets of', or `a piece of', to talk about a
quantity or an item. `A bit of' is common in spoken English.
I
bought two loaves of bread yesterday.
He
gave me a very good piece of advice.
They
own a bit of land near Cambridge.
7 Some nouns are uncount nouns when they refer
to something in general and count nouns when they refer to a particular
instance of something.
Victory
was now assured. (uncount)
In
1960, the party won a convincing victory. (count)
ไม่มีความคิดเห็น:
แสดงความคิดเห็น